Recording Behavior

1. Recording Behavior • Goals of observational research determine • Type of Record • Comprehensive • Select specific behaviors • Type of analysis based on • Qualitative Data • Quantitative Data • How you choose to record behavior determines how the results are measured, summarized, analyzed, and reported

2. Comprehensive Records • Narrative records • Sometimes erroneously called Qualitative Records • Usually produces Qualitative data which is just a description • Narrative records could be code to produce quantitative data • Researchers use narrative records when they want a complete “comprehensive” reproduction of people’s behavior. • Written Records • Audio Recordings • Video recordings • Field Notes: • Written descriptions of behavior • Less comprehensive then recordings

3. Comprehensive Records • Narrative records • Study, Classify and Organize Records • Field notes are organized • Playback recordings to make transcriptions • Classify behavior based on the records • Aggressive vs non aggressive play at school • Do not get the cart before the horse • Collect narrative records and then look for an interesting hypothesis • Bottom up approach to scientific inquiry • Test hypothesis about behavior • Peer group membership influences individual-level bullying and fighting

4. Recording Behavior • Narrative records • Narrative records should be made during or soon after behavior is observed. • Observers must be carefully trained • Avoid making inferences in the description or transcript • Classify and code in an objective manner • Advantage: Can review the record often to observe behavior. • Disadvantage: • Costly, time-consuming. • Perspective can bias the record • Viewpoint of researcher • Can only pay attention to and record a limited set of information • Even electronic recordings are limited in perspective

5. Eibl-Eibesfeldt filming in the field in Papua New Guinea.

6. He attached an optical prism to the camera’s lens so that he could photograph people who were at right angles to the direction in which he pointed it

7. Recording Behavior • Selected Records of Behaviors • Researchers choose the behavior or events they want to observe and ignore others. • Researchers need to decide how they will measure the behavior. • Examples: frequency of behavior, duration • Related to operational definition of dependent variable • Usually produces Quantitative data • Recording techniques include • Checklists • Rating scales • Electronic recording devices • For example inattentional blindness study • Record behavior of individuals when clown is riding the bike

8. Recording Behavior • Selected Records of Behaviors for study on the reactions to individuals with a physical disability • How: What behavior(s) will be measured • Based on operational definition • Physically disabled • Reaction • Type of measurement • Where: location or setting • When: time of day more specifically scheduled or random

9. Measurement Scales Determine how data will be analyzed Nominal: Categorize behaviors, events checklist -- see Observational Tools for examples Ordinal: Rank-order Interval: Specify distance on a dimension Rating scales are treated as interval scales Ratio: Specify distance plus meaningful zero Give an example of each for Pace of Life study Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

10. TABLE 4.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASUREMENT SCALES Type of Scale Operations Objective Nominal Equal/not equal Sort stimuli into discrete categories Ordinal Greater than/less than Rank-order stimuli on a single dimension Interval Addition/multiplication/ Specify the distance between stimuli subtraction/division on a given dimension Ratio Addition/multiplication Specify the distance between stimuli subtraction/division/ on a given dimension and express ratios of values ratios of scale values

11. Measurement Scales Interval: Specify distance on a dimension Rating scales are treated as interval scales Rating scales may not have equal intervals The Number of Points consider using anywhere from 5- to 11-point scales Order Effects in Rating Scales bias towards the left side of the scale Category Labels: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Terrible awful good great Training observers Practice ratings to get equal intervals

12. TABLE 4.3 EXAMPLE OF RATING SCALE USED TO MEASURE A PARENT’S WARMTH AND AFFECTION TOWARD AN INFANT CHILD* • Scale Value Description • 1 There is an absence of warmth, affection, and pleasure. Excessive hostility, coldness, distance, and isolation from the child are predominant. Relationship is on an attacking level. • 2 • 3 There is occasional warmth and pleasure in interaction. Parent shows little evidence of pride in the child, or pride is shown in relation to deviant or bizarre behavior by the child. Parent’s manner of relating is contrived, intellectual, not genuine. • 4 • 5 There is moderate pleasure and warmth in the interaction. Parent shows pleasure in some areas but not in others. • 6 • 7 Warmth and pleasure are characteristic of the interaction with the child. There is evidence of pleasure and pride in the child. Pleasure response is appropriate to the child’s behavior. • *From materials provided by Jane Dickie.

13. Analysis of Observational Data Method for analysis depends on Goal of the study How data are recorded Measurement scale Two types of analysis Qualitative: Usually for narrative Sometimes archival Quantitative: Usually for selected behaviors

14. Qualitative Data Analysis Qualitative Analysis Data reduction to summarize comprehensive records Emphasis on verbal summary Organize by grouping data by categories and themes Coding: identify units of behavior using specific criteria Coding children’s facial expression Based on smile, frown, ….. Coding aggressive behavior Observations of Aggressive and Nonaggressive Children on the School Playground Content analysis usually from archival records

15. Qualitative Data Analysis • Three Steps of Content Analysis • Content analysis usually from archival records • Identify relevant archival source • Choose an archival record that will provide information to answer the research question. • Obtain representative sample from source • The goal is to obtain a representative sample • Required for good external validity • Code content using descriptive categories • Use precise operational definitions of descriptive categories • Use appropriate units of measure. • Example: Analyze song lyrics for sexual content • “Expressions of love, sex, and hurt in popular songs: a content analysis of all-time greatest hits” Richard L. Dukes (2003) • Sexual & Violent Content Of Music: 1970-2004 , Elizabeth Langdon

16. Content Analysis Example • Perform a content analysis of the letters to the editor published in the campus newspaper • letters classified in terms of attitude toward the school • “favorable” • “unfavorable” • “neutral” • What procedures should be followed to ensure that the classification of letters is done reliably? • How could the reliability of the classification be measured? • What possible limitations are there in assessing students’ attitudes toward the university solely on the basis of this one archival source? • Identify other possible archival sources that would provide evidence bearing on students’ attitudes toward the university

17. Qualitative Data Analysis • Develop a coding scheme • Example: teacher effectiveness • videotape teachers and students • teacher and student behaviors are classified • Teacher: use of questions, use of research examples, use of humor, use of anecdotes, soliciting involvement, etc. • Students: asking questions, boredom, note-taking, interest level, etc. • see Observational Tools for examples (Note: See how this quickly becomes selected behaviors).

18. Quantitative analysis Quantitative analysis used when researchers select particular behaviors to measure. Using descriptive statistics Classifying events and behaviors into categories to count their frequency of occurrence. Calculating means and standard deviation Assessing reliability of observations Descriptive statistics depend on measurement scale Nominal: relative frequency Ordinal: rank percentages Interval and ratio: mean, standard deviation

19. TABLE 4.4 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS DESCRIBING THE TIME (IN SECONDS) THAT LISTENERS SPENT LOOKING INTO THE FACE OF A SAME-RACE SPEAKER PER 1-MINUTE OBSERVATION UNIT* Group Mean Standard Deviation Black conversants Male pairs 19.3 6.9 Female pairs 28.4 10.2 Male–female pairs 24.9 11.6 White conversants Male pairs 35.8 8.6 Female pairs 39.9 10.7 Male–female pairs 29.9 11.2 *From LaFrance and Mayo (1976).

20. Quantitative analysis • Reliability: Reliability refers to consistency. • We need to know whether two or more observers agree (are consistent) in their observations. • This is called interobserver reliability. • Example: Suppose you and I observed instructors, and we rated their “teaching effectiveness” on a 1-5 scale with 1 indicating not effective and 5 indicating very effective.

21. Quantitative analysis Interobserver reliability Measure of agreement between observers Nominal: percent agreement Ordinal: Spearman rank-order correlation Interval and Ratio: Pearson correlation Factors that affect interobserver reliability Characteristics of the observers Bored, tired, amount of experience Train observers and provide feedback Clearly define events and behaviors to be observed Provide examples Clear operational definitions

22. Thinking Critically About Observational Research • Influence of the observer: Reactivity • How do individuals know what their behavior should be like in an observational study? • Demand Characteristics: Research participants pay attention to the cues and information available in a situation. • Controlling Reactivity • Conceal the observer (but be careful about privacy issues). • Use disguised participant observation (privacy issues again). • Use indirect (unobtrusive) observation. • Adapt participants to the presence of the observer • Habituation • Desensitization • Limit information about study

23. Thinking Critically About Observational Research • Ethical issues when controlling reactivity • Privacy and informed consent • Observe people without their knowledge • Potential risks • Structured observation and field experiments • Risk/benefit ratio” • Balance ethical obligation to benefit individuals and society with potential risks of observing people’s behavior • contributing to knowledge and understanding of behavior • improving the condition of individuals and society. • Low risk to participants • very favorable risk/benefit ratio.

24. Thinking Critically About Observational Research Observer bias Observers often have expectations about behavior. Example: expectations based on research hypotheses Expectations can lead observers to look at only particular behaviors Observer bias: systematic errors in observation that result from expectations Also called expectancy effects

25. Thinking Critically About Observational Research Observer bias Potential problem in all research Hard to eliminate Observers must always be aware that they may be biased Reduce bias by keeping observers “blind” to aspects of the study: Reasons for observations Goals of the study Hypotheses