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Memory. Memory by Dr , Warda Abo- Elez Professor Of psychiatry. Memory Process. . Memory process can be divided into stages for the purpose of understanding.
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Memory Process . Memory process can be divided into stages for the purpose of understanding. sensory input or stimulus from the environment. The input is throughsensorychannels, like vision, hearing or touch and is held briefly (seconds) in a sensory register. short-term memory (STM) store where it is held for 20-30 long- Long term memory store (LTM) where it is organized in categories and stored for years.
. Memory is viewed by cognitive theorist as ant. Memory is divided into three stages, Encoding, Storage Retrieval .
This could be compared with your expe-rienceof attending a particular class. You hear lecture and make notes that is you encode the lecture, then the notes are stored in some file using date or topic name. When later this information is required you retrieve by searching that particular file by it’s topic name. Thus any memory system must perform three functions— a. Input—allow information to be fed into the system b. Storage—to maintain information c. Retrieval—to access information when required.
Memory Systems There are at least three distinct ways of classifying memory. These are based on: 1-Neurological, theory: memory is divided into verbal and non-verbal. 2-Experimental model, memory is divided into :-Sensory memory, short-term memory and long- term memory. 3-Clinical practice, memory can be divided into remote, recent and immediate.
Sensory Memory Sensory memory is the first stop of an incoming stimulus. All sensory modalities (visual and auditory, tactile, olfactory and kinesthetic). Theduration of sensory memory is very short. Iconic memory or visual sensory memory may last from 250 m sec to 500 m sec, echoic or auditory sensory memory from 2 to 10 se Tactualmemory about 4 sec and motor memory (kinesthetic) as long as 80 sec.
Short-term Memory Information is held; in STM store up to about 30 seconds Short-term memory has very limited storage capacity; six to seven items can be stored at one time. With new stimulus input, the original items get erased or fade away. The storage capacity ran be increased by chunking, i.e. combining several items. Unfamiliar items fade out faster than familiar items.
Working Memory Working memory is at times used as an alternative term to STM. Working memory occurs between the short time of sensory memory and the long-term memory. • Working memory has very limited capacity. • Retains material for a very short duration of time, for 18 to 20 seconds unless one tries to hold consciously. • Material is consciously processed and retention last as long as it is held in attention. You can understand process of working memory by recalling that you tend to remember the telephone numbers till you have to dial it, after using the number it is discarded and it is no longer in the memory.
Rehearsal Rehearsal means repeating items of information ,silently or aloud and it helps to keep these itemsof information in the center of attention. . Elaborative rehearsal organizes the material and givemeaning while rehearsing.. The amount of rehearsal given to items is important in thetransfer of information from short-term to long termmemory, the more an item is rehearsed, and the more likely it is to become part of long termmemory. In elaborative rehearsal, people use strategies that give meaning and organizationto the material so that it can be fitted in with existing organized long-term memories.
Long-term Memory The storage capacity has no known limits and one can remember information for days, months, and years. Long-term memory is of two types— . Procedural memory stores memory for how things are done. It is used to acquire retain and use perceptual cognitive and motor skills. like swimming, driving, giving an injection. Declarative memory is for remembering explicit information. It is also known as ‘fact memory’. Declarative memory contains two different categories of information.
Semantic Memory Contains meaning of words and concepts, rules of using these in language. Semantic memory is not easily forgotten, as the information is stored in highly organized way in logical hierarchies , from general to specific ones. Such organizationmakes it possible for us to make logical inferences from the information stored in semantic memory
Episodic Memory Contains personal experiences of long-term memories. It is a record of what has happened to us, or remembrances of past things. Episodicmemory seems to be organized with respect to certain events that happened in our lives.
FORGETTING Forgetting is failure to retrieve information from long-term memory store..
Interference According to this explanation, what we do in the interval between learning and recall, determines the course of forgetting. . Retroactive inhibition: This is a technical name for new learning that may interfere with material previously learned. This has been demonstrated in experiments as following.
Motivated Forgetting . Repression theory holds that we forget because the retrieval of memories would be painful or unacceptable in some way to the person. . Anxiety or guilt producing material is more often forgotten than pleasant experiences.
Zeigarnik Effect Amnesias are classified under two categories: (i) biological and (ii) psychological. Biological amnesias: Forgetting could be due to any of following reasons—diseases of the brain like senile dementia, Korsakoff syndrome, concession from blows on head, brain damage, brain infections, tumor, stroke, temporary disturbances in the blood supply or effect of high dose of alcohol and drug abuse.
Transient global amnesia: These are profound memory problem with no loss of consciousness. It comes on suddenly without any obvious cause, and it typically lasts for only a few hours or days before memory becomes normal again. . Alcohol and drug abuse: These also cause amnesia, a person may have amnesia for the events occurring while under the influence of alcohol because encoding and storage processes have been disrupted by the effects of the alcohol on the brain. Heavy drinking over a period of years however, can result through vitamin-B deficits and other chemical imbalances, in irreversible brain damage and a pattern of symptoms known as the Korsakoff syndrome. Interograde amnesia the inability to form new memories is one of the prominent symptoms of this syndrome. Psychological amnesia: These types of amnesias occur due to psychiatric diseases where the person forgets his identity also. There may not be a permanent loss.
Childhood amnesia: is due to the differences in the ways young children and older people encode and store information. As adults, much of our memory is encoded verbally and tied into networks, or schemata, that are based on language. But the young child without language encodes memories in a nonverbal form, perhaps storing information as images or feelings.
Defensive amnesia: People with defensive amnesia may forget their names, where they have come from, who their spouses are, and many other important details of their past lives. is usually considered to be a way of protecting oneself from the guilt or anxiety that can result from intense, intolerable life situations and conflicts. Normal aging: has its problems too, but the typical forgetfulness of old age is hardly severe enough to be called amnesia. In normal aging , the memory problem, centres largely on the storage of relatively recent events; it is anterograde in nature.
Methods to Improve Memory With training, practice and motivation memory can be improved. Mnemonics . Mnemonics are devices that facilitate the learning and recall of many such forms of difficult material. One of the method is to associate whatever you want to recall with something already established in your memory bank, e.g. colors of rainbow are associated with name “Roy G. BIV”, i.e. Red. Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo and Violet
Method of Loc You visualize a scene and fit the items to be remembered in that scene. The scene can be a street, a building with rooms, the layout of a college campus, a kitchen, or just about anything that can be visualized clearly and contains a number of discrete items in specific locations to serve as memory pegs..
Peg word Method Peg word method is another technique through which a list of items and their relative positions can be learned effectively. To establish the main idea in your long-term memory, a well organized set of images to which the to-be remembered items could be linked. For letter systems you can establish mnemonic pegs by forming strong distinctive images of words thatstart with the sounds of the letter of the alphabet. In number systems, you form an image with each number.
Rhyming Rhyming can be used for learning of long list involving numbers like the numbers 1 through 10. Making a Story Making a story in this you can fit the facts in the story like you read in elaborative rehearsal. Chunking This technique illustrates systematic ways of encoding information. If you want to remember a long list of digits, e.g. 1989609065 you canbreakthe numbers into chunks,.
Remembering Names and Faces As first steps in establishing a good memory for names and faces, we should: be sure we hear the name clearly when introduced, (ii) repeat the name when acknowledging the introduction, and (iii) if the name is unusual, politely ask the new acquaintance to spell it.
Here are some tips to help you to improve your memory. 1. Plan your study content and make a time schedule to cover that content. Stick to this schedule firmly. 2. For academic and nonacademic activities. One can make use of methods that help us to study better for the exams and do well. 3. make notes of important points as all the details of information cannot be remembered. Revise these notes. 4. You can use imagery to visualize the material you are learning and give auditory stimulation by reading aloud. also read loudly. Multi-channel stimulation would improve your memory. .
5. Try to organize your material with retrieval cues or reminders. Make a map of contents in your mind. 6. Give a feedback to yourself by testing your memory. Revise areas where you could not remember. 7. Review before examination. Try to learn but do not get anxious as you have seen high anxiety level would interfere with your remembering. 8. Give some short rest pauses between your study times. It would help to consolidate the material you are learning
Measurement of memory is a complex task because a number of variables interact in recall. nature of the material, (ii) the methods used for testing the recall (iii) characteristics of the individual.. Clinical Assessment of Memory
