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第五章 测试效度及其验证方法的演变(二)

第五章 测试效度及其验证方法的演变(二). 湖南师范大学外国语学院 邓杰 教授. 教学目标. 了解整体效度观的主要思想 整体效度观 测试辩论法 图尔明模型 了解累进效度观的主要思想 测试辩论模型的逻辑错误及成因 累进辩论法 累进效度观. 主要时期: 20 世纪 80 年代中期以后 基本观点:整体多维性 验证方法:理性辩论 辩论框架:图尔明模型. 整体效度观. 定义. 《教育与心理测验标准》 ( 1985 )

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第五章 测试效度及其验证方法的演变(二)

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  1. 第五章 测试效度及其验证方法的演变(二) 湖南师范大学外国语学院 邓杰 教授

  2. 教学目标 • 了解整体效度观的主要思想 • 整体效度观 • 测试辩论法 • 图尔明模型 • 了解累进效度观的主要思想 • 测试辩论模型的逻辑错误及成因 • 累进辩论法 • 累进效度观

  3. 主要时期:20世纪80年代中期以后 基本观点:整体多维性 验证方法:理性辩论 辩论框架:图尔明模型 整体效度观

  4. 定义 • 《教育与心理测验标准》(1985) • Validity … refers to the appropriateness, meaningfulness and usefulness of the specific inferences made form test scores. (从考分中推理出来的特定结论的恰当性、意义性和有用性) • 《教育与心理测验标准》(1999) • Validity refers to the degree to which evidence and theory support the interpretations of test scores entailed by proposed uses of tests. (证据和理论支持测试使用所需的考分解释的程度)

  5. 解读(效度概念的内涵) • 整体多维性 • 整体概念:构念效度整体效度,即效度(不存在类别之分) • 多维互补:之前不同类别的效度同一整体的不同维度(相互补充、相互依存,为整体效度提供证据) • 重心转移 • 不再是测试本身固有的属性,而在于分数的解释和使用,包括分数解释的合理性、使用决策的恰当性和使用后果的裨益性 • 不再是“有”或“无”的问题,而是“程度”问题 • 不再是单一指标,而是综合评判 • 不再是抽象数值,而是理性结论 • 不再由公式计算,而应逻辑推理 无所谓效度系数之说

  6. ValidityModel (Messick 1988: 42) An inductive summary of convergent and discriminant evidence that the test scores have a plausible meaning or construct interpretation, An appraisal of the value implications of the test interpretation A rationale and evidence for the relevance of the construct and the utility of the scores in particular applications An appraisal of the potential social consequences of the proposed use and of the actual consequences when used

  7. InterpretiveArgument(IA,Kane1992) IA:Scoreinterpretationanduse (转引自McNamara & Roever, 2006: 25)

  8. AssessmentArgument(Mislevy et al.2003) Evidence-centeredDesign(ECD)

  9. Evidence-basedValidation(Weir2005)

  10. AssessmentUseArgument(AUA,Bachman&Palmer2010)

  11. LogicalStructureofIA,ECD,AUA Most questionable assumption IA, based on Kane (1990, 1992) AlternativeExplanationor RivalHypothesis RebuttalData RebuttalBacking ECD, Mislevy et al. (2003: 15) AUA, Bachman (2005: 15)

  12. LogicalProblemsofECD Claim Warrant Alternative Rebuttal Backing Data

  13. LogicalProblemsofAUA-1 If we already know Jim is visiting his partner in the hospital, do we still need to go through all these steps?! Counterclaim: Jim is not sick. Claim:Jim is sick. What if he is seeing the doctor himself as well? Rebuttal:Jim could be visiting someone who is in the hospital. unless (Warrant):People often go to the hospital when they are sick. since so Supports Rebuttal Backing:Jim is visiting his partner in the hospital. Data:Jim is going to the hospital. What if Jim is attending a meeting in the hospital, not visiting anyone in particular? (Bachman & Palmer, 2010, p. 97)

  14. LogicalProblemsofAUA-2 Claim:Malissawas paidtimeandahalf. unless Rebuttal:Malissaisinanexemptcategory. Warrant:All Employerswhowork overtimemust bepaid timeandahalf. since so Rejects RebuttalBacking: Malissa’spersonnelfileindicatesthatsheisnot inanexemptcategory. Backing:Accordingto US labor law ... Data:Malissa workedovertime. Can it still be called Rebuttal Backing if it rejects the Rebuttal? (Bachman & Palmer, 2010, p. 98)

  15. TheToulminModel(Toulmin1958,2003) (properly wordedqualifier) Rational logic Harry was born in Bermuda presumably So, presumably, Harry is a British subject D So, Q, C 不可省略:结论通常不是绝对的,应该根据反驳的可能性选用一个恰当的限定词限定声明的语气强度或成立条件 理性推理:以一般情况下都可以接受的假定性理由为前提,结论应该具有合理性 Since W Unless R (highly probable assumption) (rare and exceptionalconditions) A man born in Bermuda will generally be a British subject Both his parents were aliens/ He has become a naturalized American/ …… 不容置疑:假定性理由应不证自明,或已事先证明 可以忽略:例外不足以威胁声明的整体合理性; 必须忽略:追究例外即为陷入死循环 On account of B (readily available facts or truth) 客观存在:事实性支撑应可随时奉取,而无需争辩 The following statutes and other legal provisions: ……

  16. IA、ECD和AUA共同的逻辑错误及其产生根源 错误根源 逻辑错误 自相矛盾 先声明后论证,即先作出声明后又说自己的声明不一定成立 强调论证反驳,但在论证反驳时又不得不放弃论证反驳 不具理性 明知声明不一定成立,也要强行作出声明(将假设作为声明提出) 对反驳的论证,既不讲理由也不顾反驳(又一次强行做出结论) 无限循环 反驳不可穷尽,甚至不可预知 声明的反驳的反驳正是声明自身 • 结构修改 • 增加了反驳的证据 • 删除了限定词 • 模型误解 • 将假设称为声明(因为没有声明的模型就不能称为辩论模型) • 将反驳由必须忽略的特殊例外替换为不可忽略的反面解释(为了消除质疑和异议) • 将辩论双方都应该遵循的逻辑推理过程误解为双方的争辩过程 • 反驳误用 • 用反驳来论证声明而不是限定声明

  17. 图尔明对三段论的批判 Anne now has red hair So, presumably Anne is one of Jack’s sisters • 大前提存在歧义,既可以是假定,也可是事实,因此三段论不能区分真假辩论。 • 结论非是即否,容不得例外,因此三段论在日常辩论中应用价值不大。 Since Any sister of Jack’s may be taken to have red hair Unless Anne has dyed/ gone white/ lost her hair… On account of the fact that All his sisters have previously been observed to have red hair 例1以假定为大前期,结论为对未来或未知的推理,因此可争可辩; 例2的大前提为事实,结论实为大前提事实的重复,而不是推理的结果,因此无可争辩。如对事实存在质疑,争辩没有必须,摆出事实即可(如把Anne叫到跟前,头发颜色自知)。

  18. 基于图尔明模型的AUA示例 A: Jim is going to the hospital, so he is probably sick. (since people often go to the hospital when they are sick, unless they are visiting someone who is in the hospital) B: Jim is going to the hospital to visit his partner, so he can’t possibly be sick himself. (since people are usually not sick themselves when they are visiting someone, unless they are seeing the doctor themselves) A: Jim is seeing the doctor himself as well, so he must be sick. 可见,限定词是图尔明模型与三段论的唯一的显性差别,没有限定词,图尔明模型也成了三段论,这正是图尔明所批判的。IA、ECD和AUA中,限定词都已被删除,且所谓的“声明”实为假设。因此,三个模型实质上并不是辩论模型,也不是所谓的论证模型,因为即使将“声明”改为假设,但如何检验假设仍然不得而知。

  19. 主要时期:最新提出(2011) 基本观点:层级累进观 验证方法:累进辩论法 辩论框架:累进辩论模型 累进效度及累进辩论法

  20. 定义 说明: 1. 累进辩论可以始于任何一个环节,只要有理由相信前任环节是有效的,否则永远找不到起始点。 2. 效度虽是“程度”问题,但只要达到可以接受的程度,测试就是“有效”的,否则即为“无效”。 3. 测试效度自然是测试固有的属性,而不属于数据的解释或使用,否则就是解释效度或使用效度。 • 测试数据对测试目标构念的体现程度 层级累进观 A Posteriori A Priori Response Administrating Scoring • 效度是相对于测试环节而言的。每个环节的结果数据,而不仅仅是测后分数,都应该充分体现测试的目标构念 • 当前环节的效度是所有前任环节效度层级累进的结果,并对所有后续环节的效度产生影响。 • 累进意味着一个环节的效度最大不大于最薄弱前任环节的效度;一个环节的效度不可接受,所有后续环节都没有效度可言。 Score Construct Task Using Developing Dsgn/Invstg Specification Purpose/Consq Referencing Criterion

  21. 累进辩论法 由因及果: 逐一检验假设 做出理性结论 • Comparability • ReferenceValue • Predictability • … Construct • Beneficence • Fairness • Ethics • … Claim • Reliability • ItemQuality • Languagelevel • … Criterion Executing • Relevancy • Authenticity • Interactiveness • … Consequence Planning • Correctness • Representativeness • Sufficiency • … Score • Clarity • Specificity • Practicability • … Response Hypothesis Task 由果及因: 详细列举问题 明确提出假设 Specification

  22. 累进辩论模型:理性辩论与科学调查的有机整合累进辩论模型:理性辩论与科学调查的有机整合 Analysis • 基础部分:理性辩论,确保模型本质上仍然属于辩论模型(统计分析的设计、实施和解读都离不开逻辑推理) • 扩展部分:假设检验,用于处理复杂数据并得出有说服力的结论(逻辑推理仅适用于数据简单明了、理由显而易见的情况) Hypothesis (H0|H1) N (evidential?) Y Data Claim (c=1-α) (α/𝛽) (p) (α) So Qualifier Since Warrant Unless Rebuttal • 不会陷入死循环 • 只要理由充分,无需假设检验(可避免滥用) • 一次假设检验,必然得出结论(需避免误用) on account of Backing

  23. 假设检验结果解读 H0 N p≤α? D Y H1 (a) D=p:probability H0:Thereisnosignificantdifference. H1:Thedifferenceissignificant. α:significancelevel(e.g.0.05,0.1,0.01) D C1 D C0 R W R Q W Q B B (b) (c) e.g.D=0.8 C0:Thereisnosignificantdifference R=TypeIIerror(β) e.g.D=0.0 C1:Thedifferenceissignificant R=TypeIerror(α) W=1-α=0.95(confidencelevel);B=Empiricaldata(e.g.statistics) Q=atthesignificancelevelofα

  24. 证实与证伪 正面解释与反面解释:有利于测试的解释为正面解释,反之即为反面解释。 声明与反声明:声明既可以是正面解释,也可以是反面解释。也就是说,声明并不等于正面解释,反声明亦不等于反面解释。 证据与反面证据:证据只会“支持”而不会“拒绝”声明。所谓反面证据,实际上是支持反声明的证据。 证实与证伪:证伪实际上是通过证实反声明来间接实现的。 Interpretation Falsifying Q C C’ Q' R R' W' W Justifying B B' (D') (D) Evidence 正面解释和反面解释的内容是确定的。研究问题一旦确定,正面与反面解释随之确定; 声明与反声明的内容是不确定的,反声明依赖于声明而存在,没有声明也就无所谓反声明。只有研究结果产生以后,声明和反声明才会出现。

  25. 循环与递归 (Final Claim) Q Planning Q 1-1 Q 1-1-1 每解决一个问题,需要单独使用一次辩论模型 循环:逐步解决同一层级的问题,涉及模型的循环使用,即一次辩论结束后接着开始另一个辩论,称为同级辩论(SiblingArgument) 递归:逐级解决不同层次的问题,涉及模型的递归使用,即当前辩论还未结束又启动另一个辩论,称为子辩论(Sub-Argument),子辩论结束后再返回当前辩论 Q 1-1-2 (Q = Hypothesis) …… Q 1-2 Q 1-2-1 (Q = Claim) Q 1-2-2 …… Executing …… (Initial Data)

  26. 应用示例:选项可猜性的累进辩论 (Q = Hypothesis) Executing (Q = Claim) Planning

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