Specimen Collection, Safety Precautions in the Laboratory, and Biotechnology

1. Specimen Collection, Safety Precautions in the Laboratory, and Biotechnology

2. Specimen Collection and Safety Precautions in the Laboratory Learning Objectives: Identify the guidelines for specimen collection Explain the importance of safety in the laboratory Identify the different safety precautions in the laboratory

3. Specimen Collection Specimen collection, preparation and handling are important tasks performed by nurses. Nursing staff should be vigilant especially during sample collection and should not work mechanically rather with an alert inquisitive mind. Identifying pathogens and analyzing urine, feces, sputum and blood, one can assess the health status of a patient. One of the core responsibilities of nurses is to collect, then label specimens for analysis. Immediately after this, the specimens should be delivered to the laboratory.

4. Specimen Collection Nurses need to be aware of how to properly gather specimens, both for self-protection, and to prevent the spread of diseases. Inappropriateness of the samples especially due to blood drawing errors generally occurs when the blood samples are drawn by nurses whose experiences and training are not sufficient for blood drawing in clinics comparing to the phlebotomists who are a group of more stable staff.

5. The Basic Guidelines: Specimens need to be collected at the best time possible, such as early morning sputum for AFB culture. Use appropriate collection devices like sterile, leak-proof specimen containers for collecting samples. Expiration dates need to be checked before inoculating collection device. Fill out the test request form fully and label the specimen properly. Maintain an appropriate time between collection of the specimen and delivery to the laboratory.

6. The Role of Nurses in Specimen Collection: Ensuring appropriate collection of samples Precise sample identification Making sure all selected supplies are suitable for collection Timely transfer of specimen to the laboratory Patient interaction

7. Common Specimen Collections: Complete Blood Count Serum Electrolytes Serum Osmolality Blood Chemistry Sputum specimen and culture Stool specimen and culture Urine specimen and culture Throat swab culture

8. Safety Precautions in the Laboratory Every effort has been made to minimize the hazards in this laboratory. Nevertheless, some dangers remain, and the personnel/student should be aware of them and should understand the precautions that must be taken.

9. Obvious Safety Practices • Do not perform any unauthorized experiments. • Do not eat, drink or smoke in the laboratory. • Know the location and operation of all safety equipment. • Report any incidents immediately.

10. Mouth Pipetting This is perhaps the most important aspect of safety in this laboratory, where blood plasma and other biological samples are often used. These samples must not be pipetted by mouth under any circumstances to avoid possible transmission of hepatitis.

11. Radioisotopes Some of the experiments involve the use of radioactive substances. The level of radioactivity is very low, and the substances are quite harmless if handled with care. Like blood samples, radioactive samples must not be pipetted by mouth, and hands should be washed after using these samples. If radioactive material is spilled, it should be reported immediately.

12. Broken Glassware Broken glass should be cleaned up immediately. The pieces of broken glass should be placed in a container specified for that use and the area cleaned thoroughly to prevent injury. Any personnel/student should seek attention immediately for any cuts.

13. Fire If the fire alarm sounds, all personnel/students should leave the building immediately. Injuries All injuries, no matter how minor, should be reported immediately.

14. Safety Equipment - know the location and proper operation of the following: • Shower • Eyewash • Fire Extinguisher • Fire Blanket • Fume Hood

15. Biotechnology and DNA Technology Learning Objectives: Compare and contrast biotechnology, genetic modification and recombinant DNA technology Explain how DNA technology can be used to treat disease and to prevent disease Identify the different applications of DNA technology

16. Introduction For thousands of years, people have been consuming foods produced by the action of microorganisms. Bread, chocolate, and soy sauce are some of the best-known examples. But it was just only over 100 years ago that scientists showed that microorganisms are responsible for these products.

17. Biotechnology Is the use of microorganisms, cells, or cell components to make a product. Microbes are used in the commercial production of foods, vaccines, antibiotics and vitamins. Animal cells have been used to produce viral vaccines since 1950s

18. Biotechnology (continued) Now, microorganisms and plants are being used as “factories” to produce chemicals the organisms don’t naturally make. It is done by inserting, deleting, or modifying genes with recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology a.k.a. Genetic Engineering.

19. Recombinant DNA Technology (rDNA) Recombination of DNA occurs naturally in microbes Scientists developed artificial techniques for making rDNA in the 1970s and 1980s Genes from one organism’s cells can be inserted and expressed in another organism’s cell, or be genetically modified to create a wide variety of useful products and applications.

20. Recombinant DNA Technology (rDNA) A gene from a vertebrae animal, including human, can be inserted into the DNA of a bacterium, or a gene from a virus into a yeast. Examples: Bacteria with genes for human insulin are now being used to produce insulin for treating DM and vaccine for Hep. B is being made by yeast carrying a gene for Hep. virus

21. Applications of DNA Technology Therapeutic Applications Subunit vaccines for Hepatitis B DNA vaccines with several trials against HIV, influenza, hepatitis, dengue, breast cancer and malaria

22. Applications of DNA Technology Therapeutic Applications (continued) Gene therapy for treatment of hemophilia B and Canavan disease Gene silencing for defense against viruses and transposons, and with current clinical trials for RNA interference (RNAi) to treat macular degeneration and melanoma

23. Applications of DNA Technology 2. Genome Projects First genome to be sequenced was from a bacteriophage in 1977. Genome of a free-living cell-Haemophilusinfluenzae – was sequenced in 1995. The Human Genome Project was an international 13-year effort which formally begun in October 1990 and completed in 2003.

24. Applications of DNA Technology 3. Scientific Applications During the Minimal Genome Project in 2010, researchers synthesized the smallest known genome, Mycoplasma mycoides. A copy of the Mycoplasma mycoidesgenome was transplanted into an Mycoplasma capricolumcell that had had its own DNA removed. Both Mycoplasma capricolumand Mycoplasma mycoides are bacterial species in the genus Mycoplasma, causative agents of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) from goats

25. Applications of DNA Technology 3. Scientific Applications (continued) The modified cell of Mycoplasma capricolumproduced the proteins of Mycoplasma mycoides. The experiment on the two bacterial species showed that large-scale changes to a genome can be made and that existing cell will accept the transplanted DNA. This application has spawned the new filed of Bioinformatics– the science of understanding the function of genes through computer-assisted analysis.

26. Applications of DNA Technology 3. Scientific Applications (continued) Genetic testing – any person’s DNA can be tested for the presence of mutated genes to screen for several hundred genetic diseases. This can be performed on prospective parents and also on fetal tissue like in the 2 most commonly screened genes associated with inherited forms of breast cancer and the gene responsible for Huntington’s disease (chromosome 4 - huntingtin protein)

27. Applications of DNA Technology 3. Scientific Applications (continued) Forensic Microbiology – uses a method of identification known as DNA fingerprinting to identify bacterial or viral pathogens. For example, in the 1990s, DNA fingerprints of HIV were used for the first time to obtain rape conviction (a physician was convicted of injecting his former lover with HIV)

28. Applications of DNA Technology 3. Scientific Applications (continued) Nanotechnology – deals with the design and manufacture of extremely small electronic circuits and mechanical devices built at the molecular level of matter. For example, researchers at the U.S. Geological Survey have cultured several anaerobic bacteria that reduce toxic selenium, Se4+, to nontoxic elemental Se0.

29. Applications of DNA Technology 4. Agricultural Applications The process of selecting for genetically desirable plants to end laborious conventional plant cross-breedingand also, animal husbandry benefited from rDNA technology. For example, Pseudomonas fluorescens bacterium has toxin-producing gene from insect pathogen Bacillus thuringeinsis, and Bovine growth hormone (bGH) produced by E. coli improves weight gain and milk production in cattle.

30. Safety Issues and Ethics of using DNA Technology 1. Strict safety standards must be used to avoid the accidental release of genetically modified microorganisms. 2. Genetic testing raises a number of ethical questions. Should employers and insurance companies have access to a person’s genetic records? Will some people be targeted for either breeding or sterilization? Will genetic counselling be available to everyone? 3. Genetically modified crops must be safe for consumption and for release in the environment.

31. Thank you!!!