Lecture 10 Collecting primary data using semi-structured, in-depth and group interviews

1. Lecture 10Collecting primary data using semi-structured, in-depth and group interviews

2. Research interviews Definition ‘An interview is a purposeful discussion between two or more people’ Kahn and Cannell (1957) Types of interview used in research Semi-structured Structured In-depth Group Saunders et al. (2009)

3. Research purpose and strategy (1) Forms of interview Saunders et al. (2009) Figure 10.1 Forms of interview

4. Types of interview • Structured interviews: use questionnaire based on a predetermined and ‘standardized’ or identical set of questions and we refer to them as interviewer administered questionnaires. • Semi-structure interviews: the researcher will have a list of themes and questions to be covered, although these may vary from interview to interview. This means that you may omit some questions in particular interviews, given a specific organizational context that is encountered in relation to the research topic. The order of questions also be varied depending on the flow of conversation.

5. Continued • On the other hand, additional questions may be required to explore your research question and objectives given the nature of events within particular organizations. • Unstructured interviews: are informal. You would use these to explore in-depth a general area in which you are interested . We therefore, refer to these as in-depth interviews. There is no predetermined list of questions to work through in this situation, although you need to have a clear idea about the aspect or aspects that you want to explore. The interviewee is given the opportunity to talk freely about events behavior and beliefs in relation to topic area.

6. Continued • So that this type of interaction is sometimes called ‘nondirective’. It has been labeled as informant interview since it is the interviewees perceptions that guide the conduct of the interview. In comparison, a participant (or respondent) interview is one where the interviewer directs the interview and the interviewee responds to the questions of the researcher. • We can also differentiate between types of interview related to the nature of interaction between the researcher and those who participate in this process. Interview may be conducted one to one basis, between you and single participant(face to face)(telephone)(internet) (intranet)

7. Continued • There may be other situation where you conduct a number of participants to explore an aspect of your research through a group of discussion that you facilitate.

8. Interview and type of research • In an exploratory research study, in-depth interviews can be very helpful to find out what is happening and to seek new insight. Semi stretchered interviews may be used in relation to an exploratory study. • In descriptive studies structured interviews can be used as a means to identify general patterns. • In an explanatory study, semi structured interviews can be used in order to understand the relationships between variables, such as those revealed from a descriptive study, structured interview may also be used in relation to an explanatory study, in statistical sense.

9. Research purpose and strategy (2) Uses of different types of interview in each of the main research categories Saunders et al. (2009) Table 10.1 Uses of different types of interview in each of the main research categories

10. Non-standardised (qualitative) interviews Four key aspects • Purpose of the research • Significance of establishing personal contact • Nature of the data collection questions • Time required and completeness of process

11. Data quality (1) Issues to consider • Reliability • Forms of bias • Validity and generalisability

12. Data quality (2) The importance of preparation – the 5 Ps ‘prior planning prevents poor performance’ Saunders et al. (2009)

13. Interview preparation (1) Associated issues • Interviewer’s level of knowledge • Level of information supplied to interviewees • Creating an interview guide • Appropriateness of location

14. Interview preparation (2) Associated issues • Researcher’s appearance – dress code • Shaping the interview - opening comments • Approach to questioning – clarity and reducing bias • Use of critical incident technique

15. Interview preparation (3) Associated issues • Appropriate interviewer behaviour- verbal and non-verbal • Attentive listening skills and testing understanding • Approaches to data recording - notes and tape-recording • Cultural differences and bias

16. Interviewing competence • There are several areas where you need to develop and demonstrate competence in relation to conduct of semi structured and in-depth research interview . These areas are: • Opening the interview; • Using appropriate language; • Questioning; • Listening; • Testing and summarizing understanding; • Recording and dealing with difficult participants; • recording data.

17. CHECKLIST - To help you decide whether to use semi-structured or in-depth interviews • Does the purpose of your research suggest using semi-structured and/or in-depth interviews? • Will it help to seek personal contact in terms of gaining access to participants and their data? • Are your data collection questions large in number, complex or open-ended? • Will there be a need to vary the order and logic of questioning? • Will it help to be able to probe interviewees’ responses to build on or seek explanation of their answers? • Will the data collection process with each individual involve a relatively lengthy period?

18. Interviewing competence (1) Approaches to questioning Open questions Probing questions Specific and closed questions

19. Open questions • The use of open question will allow participants to define and describe the situation or event. An open is designed to encourage the interviewee to provide an extensive and developmental answer and may be used to reveal attitudes or obtain facts. It encourage s the interviewee to reply as they wish. An open question is likely to start with or include, one of the following words: ‘what’, or ‘how’, or ‘why’,.

20. Propping questions • Can be used to explore responses that are of significance to the research topic. They may be worded like open questions but request a particular focus or direction.

21. Specific and closed questions • These types of questions are simpler to those used in structured interviews. They can be used to obtain specific information or to confirm a fact or opinion.

22. Interviewing competence (2) Advantages and disadvantages of audio-recording interviews Saunders et al. (2009) Table 10.3 Advantages and disadvantages of audio-recording the interview

23. Interviewing competence (3) Other issues to consider • Dealing with difficult participants • Managing resources – logistics and time • Obtaining participants’ permission for interview records (written and taped)

24. Interviewing competence (4) Additional forms of interviews: • Group interviews • Focus groups • Telephone interviews • Internet and intra-net mediated interviews

25. Interviewing competence (5) Forms of electronic interviews Saunders et al. (2009) Figure 10.2 Forms of electronic interviews

26. CHECKLIST - To help you prepare for your semi-structured or in-depth interview • How might your level of preparation and knowledge (in relation to the research context and your research question) affect the willingness of the interviewee to share data? • What will be the broad focus of your in-depth interview, or what are the themes that you wish to explore or seek explanations for during a semi-structured interview? • What type of information, if any, will it be useful to send to your interviewee prior to the interview? • What did you agree to supply to your interviewee when you arranged the interview? Has this been supplied? • How will your appearance during the interview affect the willingness of the interviewee to share data?

27. CHECKLIST - To help you prepare for your semi-structured or in-depth interview • Have you considered the impact that your interview location may have on participants’ responses and on your own personal safety? • How will you prepare yourself to be able to commence the interview with confidence and purpose? • What will you tell your interviewee about yourself, the purpose of your research, its funding and your progress? • What concerns, or need for clarification, may your interviewee have? • How will you seek to overcome these concerns or provide this clarification? • In particular, how do you intend to use the data to which you are given access, ensuring, where appropriate, its confidentiality and your interviewee’s anonymity? • What will you tell your interviewee about their right not to answer particular questions and to end the interview should they wish?

28. CHECKLIST - To help you prepare for your semi-structured or in-depth interview • How would you like to record the data that are revealed to you during the interview? Where this involves using a tape recorder, have you raised this as a request and provided a reason why it would help you to use this technique? • How will you seek to overcome potential issues related to the reliability of the data you collect, including forms of interviewer bias (related to your role and conduct), interviewee bias (the level of access that you gain to the data of those whom you interview) and sampling bias?

29. CHECKLIST - To help you think about the questions you are going to ask in your semi-structured or in-depth interview • How long will you have to conduct the interview? • How do you wish to conduct (or structure) the interview? • How will you use appropriate language and tone of voice, and avoid jargon when asking questions or discussing themes? • How will you word open questions appropriately to obtain relevant data? • How will you ask appropriately worded probing questions to build on, clarify or explain your interviewee’s responses? • How will you avoid asking leading questions that may introduce forms of bias? • Have you devised an appropriate order for your questions, where the early introduction of sensitive issues may introduce interviewee bias?

30. CHECKLIST - To help you think about the questions you are going to ask in your semi-structured or in-depth interview • How will you avoid over-zealously asking questions and pressing your interviewee for a response where it should be clear that they do not wish to provide one? • How will you listen attentively and demonstrate this to your interviewee? • How will you summarise and test your understanding of the data that are shared with you in order to ensure accuracy in your interpretation? • How will you allow your interviewee to maintain control over the use of a tape recorder, where used, where they may wish to exercise this? • Have you practised to ensure you can carry out a number of tasks at the same time, including listening, note taking and the identifying where you need to probe further?

31. CHECKLIST - To help you think about the questions you are going to ask in your semi-structured or in-depth interview • How might you identify actions and comments made by your interviewee that indicate an aspect of the discussion that should be explored in order to reveal the reason for the response? • How will you avoid projecting your own views or feelings through your actions or comments? • How will you maintain a check on the interview that you intend to cover and to steer the discussion where appropriate to raise and explore these aspects? • How do you plan to draw the interview to a close within the agreed time limit and to thank the interviewee for their time and the data they have shared with you?

32. Difficult interview participants and suggestions on how to address them