Maurizio Ambrosini, University of Milan, editor of the journal “Mondi migranti”

1. Who are immigrants? What are the causes of migrations? (chapters 1 and 2) Maurizio Ambrosini, University of Milan, editor of the journal “Mondi migranti”

2. Definition • An immigrant is a person who moved to a foreign country, and who have been there for more than one year (UN) • Three elements: • Moving • Crossing a national border • For a prolonged period of time (1 year or more) • Problems: • Internal migrants • Seasonal immigrant workers • Second generations

3. The double Otherness of migrants • We do not define a person coming from US, Switzerland or Japan “immigrant”, even though he/she is included in the definition quoted above • We do not name a businessperson, or a football champion “immigrant”, even though he/she comes from a country of the Global South • Immigrants are people framed as “poor” and “strangers”

4. A dynamic vision • Italian, Spanish, Greek migrants in Northern Europe have improved their legal status and social representation over time • Citizens of EU new member countries are doing the same • The economic development has similar effects in legal treatment and social acceptance

5. Superdiversity? • The difficulty in the acceptance of people perceived as “the Others” is linked with the perception of a deep break of the social order and of the homogeneity of the Nation • we are obliged to live with people who are different because of their language, citizenship, religion, cultural habits… • Our social landscape is perceived as radically altered • These differences are combined with a social stigma: these people are seen as “inferior” • The term “immigrant” comes to imply a pejorative meaning

6. Different types of migrants • Economic migrants • Seasonal migrants (now: “circular migrants”, in a “triple win” scenario) • Skilled migrants and investors • Migrants for family reasons (or “secondary migrations”) • Second generations (are they immigrants?) • Asylum seekers and refugees • Irregular migrants, clandestines, victims of traffick • Return migrants

7. The historical periods of international migrations in contemporary history • 1830-1914: transatlantic migrations from Europe • 1914-1945: refugees and first regulations • 1945-1960: new refugees and reconstruction after the war • 1960-1974: migrations towards Northern Europe and economic development • 1974-now: restriction, selection, free circulation in the EU, irregular migrations

8. Four trends in contemporary migrations (Castles and Miller) • Globalization • Acceleration • Diversification • Feminization

9. Phases or stages of migrations • 1) First arrivals: young workers, without families, with the proposal to stay temporarily • 2) New arrivals, workers even now. People with less resources, but sponsored by the “hubs”. Time extends • 3) Family reunions: spouses and children arrive, Immigrants settle • 4) Formation of ethnic minorities. Political and cultural demands. Creation of ethnic institutions

10. Causesofmigrations: the debate on the explanations

11. Why migrations occur? • Macro-structural explanations. Push and pull factors. Expulsion and attraction. Supply and demand of migrants • Micro-subjective explanations. Migrations as rational choices of people and families • Meso-social explanations. Migrant networks and institutions. Political regulation (Macro-meso level)

12. Macro-structural explanation: the supply side • Explanation based on push factors: demographic studies. Overpopulation, poverty, unemployment. Concept of “migratory pressure” • Neo-marxist theories of dependency • Globalization theories • Systemic theories (various types of links)

13. Poverty and emigration There is a clear link between migration and inequalities in the economic development of the world But only very few migrants come from the poorest countries of the world Migrants do not come from the poorest classes of their countries, even if there are differences between the nearer and the further countries Migration requires resources: economic, social, cultural capital Most of migrants have a middle class background

14. Macro-structural theories: the demand side • Explanations based on pull factors: The demand by the economic systems of receiving countries • Marxist theory of migrants as “reserve army” • The dual labour market theory (M.Piore) • The global cities theory (S.Sassen)

15. Criticisms of the macro-structural explanations • Migrants are considered as passive victims: they move around the world because of structural, overwhelming forces • Autonomy and agency of migrants are neglected • These theories do not explain why, among the people exposed to the same pressures, some leave, but many others do not leave • The normative regulation is not considered

16. Micro-subjective explanations • Explanations related to neo-classical economics: migrants as rational actors, as investors. • They are considered individualistic, selfish, and their aim is to maximize their personal interest • Economic reasons (income) as the main factors of migratory choices • New economics of migrations: families as decision makers. Migrations always seen as rational choice, but taken by families and oriented towards the well-being of the whole family unit

17. Criticisms of the micro-subjective explanations • Problems of completeness and transparency of information • Choices of destination are not strictly connected with the best economic opportunities, they do not target only the richest countries • Lack of consideration of non economic factors of migrations • Even in this case, the normative regulation is neglected • Different interests, visions and power inside migrant families (gender and generations matter)

18. Meso-social explanations • Migrant networks: importance of connections among migrants, non migrants, potential migrants, as “social bridges” between the two shores of migratory movement. • Migratory institutions: not only networks, but a large complex of actors, formal and informal agencies, non profit and for profit organizations, legal and even illegal organizations, that foster departure, passage, working insertion and settlement of migrants

19. Criticisms of meso-social explanations • They well explain why migrations continue, not the reasons why they begin • Again, the normative regulation is neglected • Explanations based on networks emphasize the informal dimension • They often overlook the negative aspects of networks • Explanations based on institutions put together too many different things

20. Regulation: a meso-macro explanation • Growing salience of laws and international agreements regulating human mobility • Tighter control of political borders (above all, after 2001) • Destination countries try to select migrants whom they consider more suitable or easy to accommodate • Irregular immigration, grey areas of unclear legal status • search for “side doors” as a result of tighter regulations • Civic stratification of migrants: different statuses and rights

21. Criticisms of regulation theories • They explain how migrations occur, but they do not explain why they occur • Most of them do not take into account the side effects and the unintended consequences of normative regulation (mainly, restrictions of mobility)

22. Conclusion • We need a multi-causal explanation: a single factor (or variable) is not enough • A general theory of migration is probably unsustainable: different fluxes can depend on different factors • We can identify a typical dilemma in social theory here: structure versus agency, and the search for bridges between them