Learning theories, instructional design theories and instructional design models

1. Learning theories, instructional design theories and instructional design models Kai Pata

2. Role of metaphors in design • Characteristic of the development of a new type of urban car by Honda were slogans and phrases that were a form of explication of the personal hunches of various people. • If the automobile were an organism, how should it evolve ? • The phrase described an ideal. • As team members argued and discussed what this slogan might mean, they came up with an answer in the form of yet another slogan : “man-maximum, machine-minimum”. • This captured the team’s belief that theideal car should somehow transcend the traditional human-machine relationship.

3. Role of metaphors in design • From considering how automobiles (taken as living beings) would evolve emerged theconcept of “Tall Boy” (a car that growshigher without becoming otherwise bigger)that provided a background for moderncity cars. Linguist George Lakoff and philosopher Mark Johnson “Metaphors We Live By”: The essence of metaphor is understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another.

4. Role of metaphors in design • Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) provide examples of the importance of externalization of tacit knowledge for innovation in Japanese firms. • Personal hunches must be convertible to explicit knowledge and shared with others to be fruitful. • Tacit (or implicit) knowledge: mental models, experiences, stories, rituals and skills residing in the individual and private mind. • Explicit knowledge: formal models, processes, rules and procedures which can be communicated externally Nonaka I. & Takeuchi H., “The Knowledge-Creating Company”, Oxford University Press, 1995.

5. Role of metaphors in design

6. Role of metaphors in design Implicit metaphors of learning Discussions about what learning is Instructional design theories and models Learning theories

7. Discussing metaphors and proverbs of learning • Learning is….. • What metaphors have been used for describing learning theories? • How are learning metaphors related with instructional designs? • Which learning theories are behind your learning metaphors?

8. Some metaphors and proverbs about learning • Estonian proverbs • Ela õppimise tarvis ja õpi elamise tarvis. • Kes õpib, see ka teab. • Töö õpetab tegijat. • Töö õpetab iseennast. • Harjutus teeb meistriks. • Inimene õpib hällist kunni hauani. • Tarkust ei saa kulbiga päha tõsta. • Planting flowers -- A seed is planted in my mind which I nurture with water and sun in the faith that it will sprout and grow. • Being a detective -- It's all about uncovering the facts, looking for clues and asking the right questions until the whole mystery makes sense. • A quest -- I'm searching for that illusive something and every step I take brings me closer to what I need to know, but I never get there ... it's a continuous journey.

9. Learning theories • Learning theory is the set of principles about learning: • consisting of the descriptions what initiates learning • how learning process proceeds, • and what is the result of learning (Driscoll, 1994). • Learning theories describe the essence of learning and predict the results of learning. But… • Learning theories are general and give few concrete guidelines how to implement these in certain situations.

10. Behavioural learning

11. “Black box” metaphor Skinner (1950) introduced behavioural learning theory: “A science of behavior must eventually deal with behavior in its relation to certain manipulable variables.

12. “Response strenghtening”metaphor 1900-1950 Learning as response strenghtening Teacher gives punishment and rewards, student reacts with teacher defined behaviour Drill, tutorial, assessment test centered learning

13. Principles of behaviourism ‘conditioning reflex’ Pavlov provided the basis of behaviourism highlighting the importance of stimulus for learning. Neutral Stimulus (NS) => No Response (NR) NS + Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) => Unconditioned Response (UCR) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) => Conditioned Response (CR) Pavlov dog

14. Principles of behavioural learning Skinner, 1950: 1. Behaviour that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is particularly effective 2. Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced ("shaping") 3. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli ("stimulus generalization") producing secondary conditioning Skinner box

15. General educational implications of behaviorism Emphasis on behavior: students should be active respondents… …people are most likely to learn when they actually have a chance to behave. Student learning must be evaluated… …only measurable behaviour changes can confirm that learning has taken place.

16. Drill and practice • Repetition of stimulus-response habits strengthens those habits. • …Promotes the acquisition of knowledge or skill through repetitive practice. • …Refers to small tasks such as the memorization of spelling or vocabulary words, or the practicing of arithmetic facts and may also be found in more complex learning tasks or physical education games and sports. • …Involves repetition of specific skills. • To be meaningful to learners, the skills built through drill-and-practice should become the building blocks for more meaningful learning. • Drills are usually repetitive and are used as a reinforcement tool.

17. personalized help learners master materials at their own pace mainly for the beginning learner for students who are experiencing learning problems interactive nature DRILL program ABC recognition of the type of skill being developed use of appropriate strategies to develop competencies use of games to increase motivation provide feedback to students Advantages of drill programs

18. Drill programs • Chemistry equations New task Show answer! 3 x Show answer => new problem Check answer! Results: solved/correct

19. Drill programs • Math 1 • Math 2 Choose activity and numbers Interactivity Competition Feedback Timer Check answer correct/wrong answers

20. Drill programs Check answer Language learning Choose topic Test Feedback

21. Drill programs Music Sounds -feedback from program

22. Drill programs Find correct! Feedback Game elements Punishing system Trials and error method Phases: drilling and testing knowledge Biology

23. Behavioural elements in computer games • System of tokens in computergames serves as the rewarding element. • Rewards and tokens are the source of extrincic motivation. • When behaviour is conditioned with tokens the behaviour itself becomes pleasant and can turn into the source of intrincic motivation to play the game.

24. Behavioural elements in computer games Warrock Gaining experience to proceed in levels Gaining points to earn money to buy new weapons

25. Behavioural elements in computer games Decisions give resourse- or environment points and you can make the environment better. When your health points decrease you can see that the environmental conditions get worse. www.honoloko.com

26. Player types • Agressive – can do anything to win • Ambicious/calculating – is always motivated by victory • Kamikaze – does all he can to sabotage the winning chances • Cautious – takes minimum risks … Manin et al. 2006 • What other types could you identify related with tokens and rewards in games that are related with behavioural learning ideas?

27. Cognitive learning

28. “Information processing” metaphor 1960-1970 learning asinformation processing (Mayer,1996). Teacher is transmissing knowledge, students are receivers of knowledge Textbooks and other content management systems.

29. “Knowledge acquisition” metaphor Anna Sfard 1998 • According to the “knowledge-acquisition” metaphor learning is the construction of well-organised knowledge structures that provide students with the means of interacting with the important aspects of the problem situations. • Acquiring scientific knowledge takes place through conceptual change where intuitive knowledge is replaced/modified with scientifically correct knowledge. • “Knowledge acquisition” metaphoris based on the idea that our brainis a containerand the learning process is fillingthis container (Bereiter, 2002).

30. “Brain as the computer” metaphor Computer has information inputs and action outputs similarly as we receive signals from the environment with our sensory organs and react with behavours that emerge in response to the outside signals Information is recorded, decoded and processed both inside the computer and the brain, this processing provides the output behaviours. information reaction

31. Model of cognitive architecture

32. “Dual-coding” theory • Paivio (1986) "Human cognition is unique in that it has become specialized for dealing simultaneously with language and with nonverbal objects and events. A dual coding theory of learning from visual and verbal materials. (Mayer, 1993)

33. “Cognitive load” theory • Provides guidelines to assist in the presentation of information in such a way that helps learners to optimize their intellectual performance. • Is based on the assumptions of: • an effectively unlimited longterm memory and • a limited working memory(e.g., Baddeley, 1986), • Aims at designinginstructions that donot overburden thelearners’ cognitivecapabilities.

34. Applications of “information processing” metaphor • http://mudelid.5dvision.ee/

35. Constructivist learning

36. “Knowledge construction” metaphor 1980-1990 learning as knowledge construction (Mayer,1996). guided inquiry discussions Student is constructing knowledge on the basis of earlier knowledge in real situations, teacher is guiding the learning process

37. Steven Weinberg “free-floating” metaphor Constructivism has been illustrated by using the “free floating” metaphor that emphasises that the rules to construct individual knowledge as well as the paths of learning are unpredictable in advance. The “free-floating” ideahas recently been used in elearningto describe the knowledge-management: “this is thebeast that is combiningthe e-learning practices with the free-floating knowledge created and shared by learning organisations during their activities (Barron, 2000)”

38. “Discovery” metaphor • Discovery learningis based on the "Aha!“method. • Dewey wrote: "There is an intimate and necessary relation between the processes of actual experience and education". • Bruner believed that students learn best by discovery and that the learner is a problem solver who interacts with the environment testing hypotheses and developing generalizations.

39. “Experiental learning” metaphor • The foundation of learning is experience. • Learning is the transformation of our experiences into knowledge, skills, attitudes, values • Reflectionhelps to transformthe experiences. (Kolb)

40. “Inquiry” metaphor

41. Co-lab

42. “Anchoring” metaphor • Anchored instruction is a major paradigm for technology-based learning that has been developed by the Cognition & Technology Group at Vanderbilt (CTGV) under the leadership of John Bransford. • Learning and teaching activities should be designed around an 'anchor' whichshould be some sort of case-studyor problem situation. KNOWLEDGE Adventures of Jasper Woodbury http://peabody.vanderbilt.edu/projects/funded/jasper/preview/AdvJW.html

43. Rock Cycle game Software http://edu.technion.ac.il/Faculty/Faculty.asp?FM=Yaelk

44. Inquiry learning applications http://bio.edu.ee/ BGUILE http://www.letus.org/bguile/

45. “Young Scientist” http://bio.edu.ee/noor/

46. Lake Illuka http://www.emlab.uow.edu.au/ Home water-usage simulaator

47. Nardooriver Investigating highly polluted river Algae simulator http://learningteam.org/htmls/nardoo.html PDA for taking water-proofs

48. Constructivist learning systems Joint construction • Concept-mapping elements Gliffy http://gliffy.com/ • Brainstorming tools Belvedere http://lilt.ics.hawaii.edu/belvedere/

49. Social-constructivist learning

50. Roots for “knowledge building” metaphor by Scardamalia and Bereiter (1994) • Popper (1972) has emphasized that in addition to physical and material reality (World 1) and the reality that concerns mental states (World 2), there is a third realm (World 3), which includes conceptual entities such as theories and ideas. • World 3 is especially important for human beings because they do not operate only in the physical and mental realms, but also understand and develop objects belonging to the third realm. World 3 is dependent on World 2 and World 1, but it is nevertheless rather autonomous.