Chapter 19 “Reassertion of Islamic Power”

1. Chapter 19“Reassertion of Islamic Power”

2. Iranian Revolution • To consider about Iran in mid-late 20th Century: Iran has its Persian pre-Islamic heritage; adheres to 12-Imam Shi’ism; Ulama continues to enjoy prestige, even in face of westernization • Pahlavi Dynasty rules from 1925 – 1979. First Reza Khan, than his son Mohammad Reza • Mohammad Reza (the Shah) tied closely with the U.S. after U.S. orchestrated coup brings him back to power

3. In early 1960s, Shah begins to repress those groups he saw as blocking Iran’s modernization: rural landlords, Ulama, and bazaar merchants • In 1963 White Revolution, the Shah: • Sold state-owned enterprises to private interests • Granted women suffrage • Initiated western education reforms • Ulama is adverse to these changes. The fiercest critic to emerge is a teacher from Qom, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini • The Shah used bribes to silence Ulama. Khomeini, however, won’t be silenced. He is forced into exile to Iraq A young Khomeini

4. Some relevant statistics: • Iranian Oil Revenue: 1968 - $817 million 1973 - $2 billion 1976 - $20 billion • Population of Tehran: 1945 – 1 million 1975 – 5 million

5. Iran was growing too big for its britches: • Ports not large enough to handle rise in trade • Schools and universities turned out thousands of highly trained people, but not enough jobs for them all • “Imagine the revolutionary potential of a growing army of unemployed intellectuals concentrated in Tehran!” • The SAVAK censored, jailed, and killed thousands of opponents of Shah College of Fine Arts at Tehran University

6. Ultimately, the White Revolution failed for the following reasons: • Overly ambitious plans of the impatient Shah who wanted Iran to rival Europe and the U.S. overnight 2. An underskilled bureaucratic elite 3. Strong resistance from popular traditional leaders: Ulama, merchants, tribal leaders 4. Oil boom created more wealth than the economy could absorb and corrupted those who profited from it

7. In January, 1978, religious students loyal to Khomeini began sit-ins in Qom. Police attacked, killing several and sparking nationwide riots • In September, 1978, police opened fire on a mass demonstration in Tehran’s Jaleh Square, killing between 300-1000 in what became known as “Black Friday” • Demonstrators demanded a return to the 1906 Constitution allowing Parliamentary government and to allow Khomeini to return from exile in Iraq • Shah asked Iraq to exile Khomeini. They did, Khomeini flees to Paris • From Paris, Khomeini used the media to call for a workers’ strike across Iran. Oil production nearly stopped. Oil prices shot up. U.S. is concerned.

8. The Shah declared martial law in Nov., 1978 • A full-scale workers strike took effect countrywide. Mobs burned symbols of western influence: liquor stores, cinemas • The Shah left into exile on Jan. 13th, 1979. Khomeini arrived soon after to set up the new government Khomeini directing the revolution from Paris

11. Est. of Islamic Republic, 1979 • Under new constitution, legislative power is given to the Ulama. In contested cases, Khomeini gave the verdict as the state’s leading judicial expert • Executive includes the Parliament, and is led by Premier Mehdi Bazargan • All vestiges of Shah’s regime are destroyed

12. Hostage Crisis, Nov. 1979 • Iranians anxiously watched the movements of the exiled Shah. He moved around a lot, but was also very ill. Pressured by the Shah’s friends (among them Kissinger) the Shah was admitted into New York for treatment • In response, armed men and women stormed the U.S. Embassy in Tehran and took 63 Americans hostage. They demanded that the U.S. send the Shah back to Iran for trial and apologize for its role in his crimes and human rights abuses • The U.S. stopped buying Iranian oil and froze $11 billion in Iranian assets in U.S. banks Iranian militants escort a blindfolded American hostage

13. “In effect, the Ayatollah and the militant students holding the Embassy came to symbolize Third World peoples’ new assertiveness against Western power; in the eyes of the American public, they stood for their government’s weakness against ‘militant Islam’” • In Dec., 1979, the USSR invades Afghanistan. This makes Iran nervous • The Hostage Crisis sparked the following: • Movement of U.S. forces into the Indian Ocean • Iraq’s invasion of Iran in September, 1980 • Reagan’s decisive victory over Carter in 1980 elections • Iranian and American economy hurt by oil embargo

14. A U.S. attempt to rescue hostages in April, 1980 failed. • The Shah dies in July, 1980 • With the Shah dead, and at war with Iraq, Iran agreed to mediation. • Carter, on his last day in office, concludes negotiations for the freeing of the hostages in return for the unfreezing of Iranian assets and a promise not to meddle in Iranian affairs • Hostages are freed on January 21, 1980, minutes after Reagan had been sworn in as President

15. Struggle for Persian Gulf Supremacy • U.S. feared the Soviets might try and gain control of oil in the Persian Gulf region following their invasion of Afghanistan • The Carter Doctrine: “Any attempt by an outside force to gain control of the Gulf area would be seen as an attack on U.S. vital interests and could lead to war”

16. Iran – Iraq War (1980 – 1988) • Iraq beginning in 1970s began its fight for Middle East supremacy • Iraq came under Baath Party control in 1963 after coup disposed Kassem. Under leadership of Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr. Baathists are socialist and secular • Saddam Hussein, a young Baath strongman, gains power in the party throughout the 60s and 70s Hussein with other young Baathists in Cairo. Pre-1963

17. Hussein used his power to push al-Bakr aside and becomes President in July, 1979 • Iraq had a developed economic infrastructure for oil and agriculture (Tigris & Euphrates Rivers) • Even though Iraq was divided ethnically and between Shi’i and Sunni, Hussein through authoritarian rule kept stability. He wanted to prove himself as the uniter of the Arabs. Hussein believed strongly in Pan-Arabism and this was definitely a goal of his. • Hussein attacks Iran in September, 1980. He accused Iran of violating a 1975 treaty over a border dispute. Hussein was also fearful that Iran was going to try and dispose him in order to spread their Islamic Revolution

18. Iran had the clear military advantage with a larger army and better weaponry • Iraq hoped that Iran’s Arab minorities would join them; Iran hoped that Iraq’s Shi’I majority would join them. Neither happened. • Iraq supported by Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt • Iran supported by Syria, Libya and Israel. Israel supported Iran only because they feared more that an Iraqi victory would embolden Arab militants and the Pan-Arab movement • The Soviet Union sold arms to both sides

19. The United States began supporting Iraq publicly in 1982 as Iran was making headway in the war. The U.S. sent military and economic aid. • However, as the war dragged on, the U.S. and Israel hoped to prevent a decisive victory by either side. • Both countries began secretly selling arms to Iran. The United States used proceeds from the arms sales to fund the Contras (anti-Sandanista rebels in Nicaragua) in what is known as the “Iran-Contra Affair” Special envoy Donald Rumsfeld greeting Hussein in 1983. Rumsfeld would be Sec. of Defense during invasion of Iraq in 2003

20. Iranian soldier protecting himself from Hussein’s widespread use of chemical weapons during the war

21. Iran, nearly bankrupt, began asking for a ceasefire in 1987. Both sides agree to a ceasefire in August, 1988 • Casualties of Iran-Iraq war: IRAN: 700,000 – 1 million killed (civilian and military) IRAQ: 375,000 – 500,000 killed or wounded (civilian and military) • The war is the most deadly of all modern Middle East wars

22. Retreat From Camp David Accords • Most Egyptian Arabs were unhappy with Sadat for Camp David. Also frustrated with great economic disparities within the country • Begin of Israel continued to settle West Bank, against his promise to move towards Palestinian autonomy in those areas • Frustrated Egyptians joined Marxist and/or Islamic organizations • Sadat responds by banning the Muslim Brothers magazine and imposing censorship on Mosque sermons • Sadat is assassinated in October, 1981

23. Husni Mubarak (an Air Force hero from 1973 war) is chosen to succeed Sadat • Mubarak institutes social and economic reforms that please the lower classes; keeps tight controls on Muslim revolutionaries, but frees those who’d been jailed by Sadat; severs relations with Israel in 1982 after Israel invaded Lebanon • Egypt resumed diplomatic ties with its Arab neighbors and the popular Mubarak was elected to another term in 1984 Husni Mubarak

24. Israel’s Rising Militancy • Reagan sought to develop a “strategic consensus” between Israel and Arab states in opposition to Soviet expansion in Middle East. He planned to do this with arms sales • Begin meanwhile continued an aggressive campaign against PLO. This included attacks on PLO strongholds in South Lebanon, even with UN peacekeeping forces on the ground there! • Begin bombs an Iraqi nuclear reactor in June, 1981

25. Israel’s Invasion of Lebanon, 1982 • The strife in Lebanon – Christian vs Muslim, rich vs poor, Lebanese separatists vs Arab nationalist – went on and on • A massive IDF invasion of Lebanon began on June 6th, 1982. IDF soldiers bypassed UN peacekeepers and pushed back PLO and Syrian forces. Israeli planes bombed Beirut. Thousands of civilians were killed • The U.S. vetoed UN Security Council Resolutions condemning Israel and continued supplying arms to Israel • Iran came to aid of PLO and Syrians by establishing revolutionary training centers and providing arms

26. A joint U.S. – French – Italian force enters Lebanon to mediate a tenuous ceasefire to help Lebanon elect a new President. The top candidate was assassinated, reigniting violence • Hundreds of Palestinian men, women and children were massacred by IDF and Lebanese Christian forces at Shatila and Sabra. An Israeli commission found that General Ariel Sharon was responsible and called for his exclusion from future government posts • For peace to occur in Lebanon, the Syrians, Palestinian militants, Israeli invaders, UN peacekeepers and the multinational force of Italy, France and the U.S. would all have to leave the country. But, in what order?! • Meanwhile, Shi’I terrorists (Hezbollah) emerged in South Lebanon, backed by Iran.

27. Hezbollah attacked U.S. marine barracks in Beirut killing 241 American servicemen and 58 French servicemen • They also bombed U.S. embassies in Beirut and Kuwait • The multinational force leaves in 1984 Coffins of Marines from Beirut bombing Aftermath of barrack bombing in Beirut

28. Terrorist Triumph • The fighting raged on in Lebanon • IDF withdrew in 1985 • Hezbollah gained credit for driving out the West and Israel. They continued acts of terror, notably a number of kidnappings of foreigners for which they demanded ransoms