Interviews

1. Interviews “a conversation with a purpose” (Dexter, 1970:123, cited in Ribbins, 2007: 207)

2. Advantages of Interviews: • Allows the interviewer to probe responses for more information or clarification. • Provides the best means of assessing feelings or attitudes. • Provides an opportunity to assess ‘body language’. • Provides the flexibility to adapt the approach to the requirements of the research, the respondent or the situation.

3. Disadvantages of Interviews: • Interviewer bias  • Subject bias • Question bias • Sample bias • Not generalizable • Very time-consuming

4. Main Types of Interview: • Structured – oral questionnaire • Unstructured – discussion, requires great skill • Semi-Structured – probes and prompts • Chats??? – ethics?

5. Who to interview: • Individuals • Pairs • Groups – how big? • Group interview versus focus group?

6. Group interview versus focus groups • Group interview: Interviewer + individuals = tighter structure • Focus group: Moderator + consensus = loose Dynamics between people of varied opinions Personal matters will not emerge 6 to 12 participants (more than 8 is demanding).

7. Forms of interview • Face-to-face (preferred) • Telephone interviews • Email interviews • On-line discussion forums • Written

8. Interview Schedules: The design of interview schedules should proceed through four stages: • initial design based on research questions and objectives (informed by literature review and your knowledge of the phenomenon). • discussion with your supervisor or co-researcher. • one or more pilot interviews with people who have similar characteristics to your main sample • final design

9. Recording the Data: • The main alternatives are to use a recording machine or to take notes. • Contemporaneous note-taking is an acquired skill. • The recording machine provides the merit of giving accurate and complete records of the interview if the environment is suitable. It also makes it easier to record responses verbatim for use as quotations in writing up the research. • The researcher has the option of making notes from the recordings or verbatim transcriptions

10. Recording the Data: • Somerespondentsmay be uncomfortablewith a recording machine • Youmustobtainthepermission of the respondentto use a recording machine (for ethicalreasons)

11. Recording the Data: • Very tme-consuming to transcribe the whole interview. • Good to take notes also in case the machine malfunctions. • If a recording machine is used, make notes and only transcribe the parts you want to quote.

12. Respondent validation? • MAJORITY SAY YES Bassey (1999:76): “It is good practice after the interview to take the reports of the interview back to the interviewee to check that it is an accurate record and that the interviewee is willing for it to be used in the research. Sometimes people realise that they have not said what they meant to say and this provides an opportunity to put the record straight.”

13. Respondent validation? • MINORITY SAY NO • “Rather than commenting on the accuracy of your summary, they [the informants] are liable to want to expand and explain their answers, thereby introducing their own subjective bias into the interview record” (Drever, 1995:64). • Validation is “a flawed method” (Silverman, 2000:177) because it does not verify your data; it merely increases them.

14. Finally: • Be respectful • Ensure that the interviewees give their informed consent to participating • Fully explain the purpose of the interview, what the data will be used for etc • Assure confidentiality (and maintain it!) • Listen more than you talk • When first approaching the interviewees try to give an acurate estimate of the time the interview will take and then try not to exceed that time • Thank the interviewees for their time and their help

15. Observation "In social research, observation is generally used to record behaviour. It may be employed as a primary method of data collection to provide an accurate description of a situation; to gather supplementary data which may qualify or help interpret other sources of data; or it may be used in an exploratory way, to gain insights which can be tested by other techniques." (Johnson, 1994, p. 52)

16. Types of observation: Degree of participation in event being observed (Continuum from complete participation to deliberately minimal participation to overt non-participation to covert observation). Degree of structure in what is observed (Systematic/formal, pre-determined focus, quantifiable data collection versus ethnographic record, less formal, emerging focus, qualitative).

17. Systematic Observation An instrument for observation will specify • The categories of behaviour to be noted, • What is classified as an act of behaviour, • Time intervals for recording observation • Scales or categories for classifying the behaviour.

18. Problems of systematic/structured observation • Difficulties in defining what types of behaviour correspond to a particular concept • Lack of confidence of observer, and observer fatigue • Distortion of observer’s perceptions - own values intervene • Data may be open to the criticism of lacking checks on reliability (particularly for the single-handed researcher)

19. ORACLE: An example of highly structured observation ORACLE = Observational Research and Classroom Learning Evaluation Galton et al (1976; 1996)

20. ORACLE: An example of highly structured observation ORACLE = Observational Research and Classroom Learning Evaluation Galton et al (1976; 1996)

21. Participant observation "It is generally used to record the behaviour of a collectivity or group, whether this be in a meeting or a series of less formal activities, even to record a "way of life". (Johnson, 1994, p. 54)

22. Observations lead to very rich data But … Time and resource heavy Huge amount of data collected There is a limit to how long a researcher can observe in detail. Accuracy can be challenged particularly in the case of the single-handed researcher.

23. Managing the activity of observing There are four essential questions for an investigator using observation: • What should be observed? • How should observations be recorded? • How can the accuracy of observations be ensured? 4. What is to be the relationship between observer and observed, and how can thisbe established?

24. Ethical issues and issues of access are important. There are no hard and fast rules for all situations, integrity and sound intentions are the most important guidelines. Observation is an intrusive research technique, particularly when one person is being followed and their activities recorded.

25. Observation of meetings: content and process issues • For each person in turn: • What did they contribute to the discussion? • What was the nature of their contribution? • How did they help in achieving the purposes of the meeting? • How did they hinder the achievement of purposes?

26. Example of an open observation schedule (from a National College-funded evaluation)

27. Documentary Research Documentary AnalysisDocumentary Evidence A research method which involves analysing the content of documents

28. May be national, local or school-based • Policy documents indicate intentions • Documents may record actions or decisions • Documents need to be identified, located, classified, coded, collated, and stored • Coding might relate to research questions • Text may be coded using highlighting • May precede interviews or observation

29. Documentary evidence - issues • Context-bound, not just representations of reality • Authenticity and credibility – when was this written? For what purpose? • Representativeness – how typical of the sources we are investigating is this one item? • Is the author biased? Do we trust what we read? • How close is the author to the events described? How accurate is the description?

30. Documents might include: • Minutes of meetings • letters, memoranda • diaries • speeches • written curricula • course documents • timetables • notices • inspection reports • student work Any others?

31. Types of documentary data • Primary sources • Original • Lack interpretation • Direct connection to what is reported • Secondary sources • Includes interpretation • Are not first-hand (or may not be) • Lack direction connection to the original data

32. One source may be both primary and secondary • Ofsted report • Primary in terms of reporting on evaluation of teaching • Secondary in terms of the teaching itself, or the demographic data included in the report

33. Documentary evidence • Published • Books, articles, reports, online fora... • Unpublished • Letters, discussions (personal communications), email...

34. Strengths of documentary analysis: • It is an unobtrusive method • You can collect data without being observed • Data is permanent and can be subject to re-analysis • It can be inexpensive • Allows access to past events (where there may not • be available witnesses) • Useful in triangulating other evidence

35. Weaknesses of documentary analysis: • Documents may be limited or partial • Documents have been written for a purpose unconnected with the research and may be biased • Documents may not be credible or representative

36. In conclusion: • DA is particularly appropriate where overt investigation may be difficult but where the researcher has access to documentation. • DA is more often used as a means of triangulating evidence from other, more overt, sources.

37. Commissioned diaries The diarists must be clear what they are being asked to do, and why. If not fully in sympathy with the task, they will not complete it properly.

38. Diaries kept by others Advantages • An extra pair of hands • Investigator is invisible • Wealth of description • Extends the scope of the research Disadvantages • Too much to analyze • Diarists may be atypical or have their own agenda • Variation in depth and detail • Language is not standardised