Infancy: Cognitive Development

1. Infancy: Cognitive Development

2. Cognitive Development Jean Piaget Technology Tip: Have students learn about the life and works of Piaget on the Jean Piaget Society website. URL: http://www.piaget.orgTechnology Tip: Have students learn about the life and works of Piaget on the Jean Piaget Society website. URL: http://www.piaget.org

3. Cognitive Development – Jean Piaget Focus on development of children’s ways of perceiving and mentally representing the world Schemes Concepts Assimilation “Fit” new ideas into existing schemes Accommodation Modify schemes to accept new ideas Teaching Tip: Have students think about all that can be learned by watching children play. Share their thoughts with the class, and reflect on how Piaget learned about children’s cognitive development though observation.Teaching Tip: Have students think about all that can be learned by watching children play. Share their thoughts with the class, and reflect on how Piaget learned about children’s cognitive development though observation.

4. The Sensorimotor Stage  Birth through 2 years Development through Sensory information Motor activity Progress from reflex responses to goal-oriented behavior Form mental representations Hold complex pictures of past events in mind Solve problems by mental trial and error

5. Substages of the Sensorimotor Stage Simple Reflexes Birth to 1 month Modify reflexes based on experience Primary Circular Reactions 1 to 4 months Primary = focus on infant’s own body Circular = repeated behaviors Secondary Circular Reactions 4 to 8 months Secondary = focus on objects or environmental events Track moving objects until they disappear from view

6. Substages of the Sensorimotor Stage Coordination of Secondary Schemes 8 to 12 months Coordinate schemes to attain specific goals Begin to imitate others Tertiary Circular Reactions 12 to 18 months Deliberate trial and error behaviors Invention of New Means Through Mental Combinations/ Thought 18 to 24 months External exploration is replaced by mental exploration Teaching Tip: Have students develop a set of tasks that can be administered to infants of different ages. Based on Piaget’s stages, how do they think each age group will perform?Teaching Tip: Have students develop a set of tasks that can be administered to infants of different ages. Based on Piaget’s stages, how do they think each age group will perform?

7. Object Permanence Neonates show no response to objects not within their immediate grasp 2 month - show surprise when a screen is lifted after an object was placed behind a screen and now is not there Child makes no effort to search for the missing object 6 month - try to retrieve a preferred object partially hidden 8- to 12-month - try to retrieve objects completely hidden More recent research – object permanence in some form as early as 2½ - 3½ months Truth or Fiction Revisited For 2-month-old infants, “out of sight” is “out of mind.” (TRUE) Truth or Fiction Revisited For 2-month-old infants, “out of sight” is “out of mind.” (TRUE)

8. Development of Object Permanence Figure 6.1 Development of Object Permanence. To the infant who is in the early part of the sensorimotor stage, out of sight is truly out of mind. Once a sheet of paper is placed between the infant and the toy monkey (top two photos), the infant loses all interest in the toy. From evidence of this sort, Piaget concluded that the toy is not mentally represented. The bottom series of photos shows a child in a later part of the sensorimotor stage. This child does mentally represent objects and pushes through a towel to reach an object that has been screened from sight.Figure 6.1 Development of Object Permanence. To the infant who is in the early part of the sensorimotor stage, out of sight is truly out of mind. Once a sheet of paper is placed between the infant and the toy monkey (top two photos), the infant loses all interest in the toy. From evidence of this sort, Piaget concluded that the toy is not mentally represented. The bottom series of photos shows a child in a later part of the sensorimotor stage. This child does mentally represent objects and pushes through a towel to reach an object that has been screened from sight.

9. Object Permanence Before 4 Months of Age? Figure 6.2 Object Permanence Before 4 Months of Age? Renee Baillargeon (1987) used the technique shown here to demonstrate that knowledge of object permanence may exist prior to 4 months of age. She first showed infants a screen rotated back and forth like a drawbridge (top drawing). After infants showed habituation, a box was placed in the path of the screen. The middle drawing shows a possible event – the screen stops when it reaches the box. The bottom drawing shows an impossible event – the screen rotes through a full 180-degree arc as though the box were no longer behind it. (The experimenter had removed it, unknown to the infant.) Infants looked longer at the impossible event, indicating they realized the box still existed even when hidden behind the screen. See your student companion website for an interactive version of Figure 6.2.Figure 6.2 Object Permanence Before 4 Months of Age? Renee Baillargeon (1987) used the technique shown here to demonstrate that knowledge of object permanence may exist prior to 4 months of age. She first showed infants a screen rotated back and forth like a drawbridge (top drawing). After infants showed habituation, a box was placed in the path of the screen. The middle drawing shows a possible event – the screen stops when it reaches the box. The bottom drawing shows an impossible event – the screen rotes through a full 180-degree arc as though the box were no longer behind it. (The experimenter had removed it, unknown to the infant.) Infants looked longer at the impossible event, indicating they realized the box still existed even when hidden behind the screen. See your student companion website for an interactive version of Figure 6.2.

10. What Are the Strengths/Weaknesses of Piaget’s Theory? Strengths: Comprehensive model Confirmation from research of others Pattern and sequence appear cross-culturally Weaknesses: Stages are more gradual than discontinuous Underestimate infants’ competence Emergence of object permanence Deferred imitation Computational concepts

11. Counting in the Crib? Figure 6.3 Counting in the Crib? Research by Karen Wynn suggests that 5-month-old infants may know when simple computations – or demonstrations involving concepts of more and less – are done correctly. The research is made possible by the fact that infants stare longer at unexpected stimuli – in this case, at a “wrong answer.” Wynn conducted her research by exposing infants to Mickey Mouse dolls. She then added or removed one or more dolls behind a screen as the infant watched her, removed the screen, and observed how long the infants gazed at the “right” or “wrong” answers.Figure 6.3 Counting in the Crib? Research by Karen Wynn suggests that 5-month-old infants may know when simple computations – or demonstrations involving concepts of more and less – are done correctly. The research is made possible by the fact that infants stare longer at unexpected stimuli – in this case, at a “wrong answer.” Wynn conducted her research by exposing infants to Mickey Mouse dolls. She then added or removed one or more dolls behind a screen as the infant watched her, removed the screen, and observed how long the infants gazed at the “right” or “wrong” answers.

12. Information Processing

13. What Are Infants’ Tools for Processing Information? Memory Neonates show memory for previously exposed stimuli By 12 months dramatic improvement in encoding and retrieval Rovee-Collier (1993) studies of infant memory Given a reminder (priming), improves memory Teaching Tip: In groups, have students design tasks that would test an infant’s memory. If possible, have them try out their tasks and see if their predictions match the results.Teaching Tip: In groups, have students design tasks that would test an infant’s memory. If possible, have them try out their tasks and see if their predictions match the results.

14. Investigating Infant Memory Figure 6.4 Investigating Infant Memory. In this technique, developed by Carolyn Rovee-Collier, the infant’s ankle is connected to a mobile by a ribbon. Infants quickly learn to kick to make the mobile move. Two and 3-month-olds remember how to perform this feat after a delay of a few days. If given a reminder of simply viewing the mobile, their memory lasts for 2 to 4 weeks.Figure 6.4 Investigating Infant Memory. In this technique, developed by Carolyn Rovee-Collier, the infant’s ankle is connected to a mobile by a ribbon. Infants quickly learn to kick to make the mobile move. Two and 3-month-olds remember how to perform this feat after a delay of a few days. If given a reminder of simply viewing the mobile, their memory lasts for 2 to 4 weeks.

15. What Are Infants’ Tools for Processing Information? Imitation Deferred imitation – as early as 6 months Neonates imitate adults who stick out their tongue Not present in older infants – likely reflexive Speculation on newborn’s ability to imitate Aids in caregiver – infant bonding Mirror neurons Truth or Fiction Revisited A 1-hour-old infant may imitate an adult who sticks out his or her tongue. (TRUE) Teaching Tip: Parenting & Family Students: If students have access to newborns or young infants, have them try out the imitation exercise. How successful were they in having the infants imitate their facial expressions?Truth or Fiction Revisited A 1-hour-old infant may imitate an adult who sticks out his or her tongue. (TRUE) Teaching Tip: Parenting & Family Students: If students have access to newborns or young infants, have them try out the imitation exercise. How successful were they in having the infants imitate their facial expressions?

16. Imitation in Infants Figure 6.5 Imitation in Infants. These 2- to 3-week-old infants are imitating the facial gestures of an adult experimenter. How are we to interpret these findings? Can we say that the infants “knew” what the experimenter was doing and “chose” to imitate the behavior, or is there an alternative explanation?Figure 6.5 Imitation in Infants. These 2- to 3-week-old infants are imitating the facial gestures of an adult experimenter. How are we to interpret these findings? Can we say that the infants “knew” what the experimenter was doing and “chose” to imitate the behavior, or is there an alternative explanation?

17. Language Development

18. Prelinguistic Vocalizations Prelinguistic vocalizations do not represent objects or events Examples of prelinguistic vocalizations Crying Cooing – vowel-like, linked to pleasant feelings Babbling – combine vowels and consonants Intonation – patterns of rising and falling melody Truth or Fiction Revisited Infant crying is a primitive form of language. (FALSE) Teaching Tip: Parenting & Family Studies: Play recordings of different infant sounds and let students guess what type of vocalization is occurring (e.g. cooing, babbling).Truth or Fiction Revisited Infant crying is a primitive form of language. (FALSE) Teaching Tip: Parenting & Family Studies: Play recordings of different infant sounds and let students guess what type of vocalization is occurring (e.g. cooing, babbling).

19. How Does Vocabulary Develop? Receptive vocabulary outpaces expressive First word – typically 11 to 13 months 3 or 4 months later – 10 to 30 words First words general nominal and specific nominal General (class nouns) and specific (proper nouns) Movement words represented in early speech 18 to 22 months - rapid increase from 50 to more than 300 words Teaching Tip: Social Work & Counseling: Have students discuss the following: How might a social worker or a counselor use information gathered through observations of a parent and child communicating to evaluate the quality of the parent-child relationship? Teaching Tip: Have students interview several families (or their own families) and ask them about their children’s first words and phrases. Have students work as a class to classify those words and compare and contrast them based on gender, birth order, and other factors. Can any conclusions be made regarding children’s first words or phrases?Teaching Tip: Social Work & Counseling: Have students discuss the following: How might a social worker or a counselor use information gathered through observations of a parent and child communicating to evaluate the quality of the parent-child relationship? Teaching Tip: Have students interview several families (or their own families) and ask them about their children’s first words and phrases. Have students work as a class to classify those words and compare and contrast them based on gender, birth order, and other factors. Can any conclusions be made regarding children’s first words or phrases?

20. How Do Infants Create Sentences? Holophrases Single words used to express complex meanings Two word sentences – Telegraphic Speech 18 to 24 months telegraphic two word sentences begin Demonstrate syntax Teaching Tip: Education: Ask students to form groups and develop a set of holophrases. Then ask the class to guess what a child might be communicating through their holophrases. Be sure to point out how non-verbal gestures, voice inflection, context, and other factors can change the communicative intent.Teaching Tip: Education: Ask students to form groups and develop a set of holophrases. Then ask the class to guess what a child might be communicating through their holophrases. Be sure to point out how non-verbal gestures, voice inflection, context, and other factors can change the communicative intent.

21. Theories of Language Development

22. Environmental Theories - Learning Theories Imitation Children learn from parental models Does not explain uttered phrases that have not been observed Reinforcement Sounds of adults’ language are reinforced Foreign sounds become extinct Use of shaping Parents do not exclusively reinforce correct syntax Truth or Fiction Revisited You can advance children’s development of pronunciation by correcting their errors. (FALSE) Teaching Tip: Education: Have students research how language develops in children who are taught two languages at the same time (simultaneous bilingual) or at different times. What implication does this have for the education of young children? Technology Tip: Ask students to read more about what parents can do to enhance language development in young children on the Speech-Language Therapy website. URL: http://speech-language-therapy.com/devel1.htmTruth or Fiction Revisited You can advance children’s development of pronunciation by correcting their errors. (FALSE) Teaching Tip: Education: Have students research how language develops in children who are taught two languages at the same time (simultaneous bilingual) or at different times. What implication does this have for the education of young children? Technology Tip: Ask students to read more about what parents can do to enhance language development in young children on the Speech-Language Therapy website. URL: http://speech-language-therapy.com/devel1.htm

23. Environmental Theories -Infant-Directed Speech Infant-directed speech – Motherese Spoken more slowly, briefer sentences Simple syntax Key words are at end and spoken in higher pitch Add diminutive morpheme y to nouns Repeated sentences, reduplication Focus on naming and describing objects Teaching Tip: Based on information in this section, have students debate the use of infant-directed speech. What advice would you give to parents who think that they shouldn’t speak “baby talk” to their infants? Teaching Tip: Parenting & Family Studies: Ask students to observe sets of parents and infants in a natural setting and note how many of the characteristics of infant-directed speech they heard in those interactions? Discuss their findings in class.Teaching Tip: Based on information in this section, have students debate the use of infant-directed speech. What advice would you give to parents who think that they shouldn’t speak “baby talk” to their infants? Teaching Tip: Parenting & Family Studies: Ask students to observe sets of parents and infants in a natural setting and note how many of the characteristics of infant-directed speech they heard in those interactions? Discuss their findings in class.

24. Biological Theories -Nativist View Innate factors cause children to attend to and acquire language in certain ways Psycholinguistic Theory Interaction between environmental influences and inborn tendency to acquire language

25. Biological Theories - Language Acquisition Device The inborn “prewired” tendency to acquire a language Evidence for LAD – Language Acquisition Devise (Chomsky) Universality of language abilities Regularity of early production of sounds, even among deaf children Invariant sequences of language development, regardless of language Inborn tendency primes nervous system to learn grammar Truth or Fiction Revisited Children are “prewired” to listen to language in such a way that they come to understand rules of grammar. (TRUE)Truth or Fiction Revisited Children are “prewired” to listen to language in such a way that they come to understand rules of grammar. (TRUE)

26. Biological Theories - Sensitive Period in Language Development Plasticity of brain provides a sensitive period of learning language (Lenneberg, 1967) Begins about 18 to 24 months and continues through puberty Left hemisphere injuries Children recover good deal of speech, utilizing right hemisphere Case studies Genie Simon and ASL Technology Tip: Have students read this ABC news report that chronicles the life of Genie through her current age of 51 (in 2008). Ask students to discuss reasons that Genie’s treatment may not have been completely successful. URL: http://abcnews.go.com./Health/story?id=4804490&page=1 Teaching Tip: Parenting & Family Studies: Have students debate the pros and cons of teaching hearing children sign language. Teaching Tip: Invite someone who uses ASL to come and speak to your class about the use of sign language as a first or primary language.Technology Tip: Have students read this ABC news report that chronicles the life of Genie through her current age of 51 (in 2008). Ask students to discuss reasons that Genie’s treatment may not have been completely successful. URL: http://abcnews.go.com./Health/story?id=4804490&page=1 Teaching Tip: Parenting & Family Studies: Have students debate the pros and cons of teaching hearing children sign language. Teaching Tip: Invite someone who uses ASL to come and speak to your class about the use of sign language as a first or primary language.