CEP901B Technology and Education Prosem

1. CEP901B Technology and Education Prosem March 25, 2003 Matthew J. Koehler Punya Mishra

2. Agenda • Announcements • Brief discussion of research projects (grant opportunities etc.) • Brief discussion on UCRIHS • Discussion of readings • Break • Presentation by Punya + Matt • Meeting with Parolees

3. Prelims • It is time to sign up for it • You should have received the email with details • It is 7 hours, our mistake (sorry) • Except for international students who may choose to get an extra hour • Practice again • Those of you who got just pass or lower grades are strongly recommended to do it again (and again) • Matt and I are willing to read them again and provide feedback

4. ‘tis the time… • To meet with your advisors to discuss • Courses for next semester (and further) • Setting up your guidance committee • Your experience with the practice prelims • What you are planning on doing for your practicum

5. Next Time • Readings will be up soon (sorry for the delay) • Guest lecturer, Dr. Ralph Putnam • Group in charge: • Please start discussion early… • Continue working on your research project draft • Convert current draft into a proposal for Spencer (details coming up…) • Also download and go over the UCRIHS form (and bring in questions about it)

6. The Spencer small grant http://ed-web3.educ.msu.edu/spencer/small_research.htm MSU/Spencer Research Training Grant • Small research grants designed to underwrite some of the costs of research by doctoral students in the college • individual grants ranging from $500 to $1,000 • For individual or group projects • Reviewed by doctoral students • DEADLINE: APRIL 18, 2003; 3 PM

7. Requirements • A description of the project, no longer than three pages (single-spaced, 12 point type, 1 inch margins), including: • A clear statement of the project’s analytical purpose and potential theoretical benefit; • A description of the research process; • A declaration that costs are not covered by a research project or other source. • A detailed budget, with categories and cost estimates. • A letter of endorsement from the student’s advisor or the faculty member supervising the project, which: • Confirms that the project has the approval of the faculty member; • Explains the analytical value of the project and its educational value for the student; and • Confirms that there is no alternative support for the costs of the project.

8. Criteria for selection • The primary criteria for awarding the grant include: • The degree that the proposal meets the requirements spelled out in this announcement • The value added to the proposed study by the work covered by the requested funds • The analytical value of the proposed study and the educational value for the student

9. Media Effects: 2 presentations The Matt ‘n Punya show…

10. A tale of two metaphors • Metaphors are fundamental to human language and conceptualizing allowing us to structure human experience and communication (Lakoff & Johnson). Metaphors are deeply embedded in our language, culture, and the way we think, and hence affect how we experience and interact with the world and other people. • Media as conduit Reddy, M. (1979), The conduit metaphor - a case of frame conflict in our language about language. In A. Ortony (Ed.), Metaphor and thought. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press. 284-320. • human communication is overwhelmingly described and understood in terms of transmission of meanings from speaker or writer to a listener or reader • “packaging” meanings into words, which are in turn “unpacked” to obtain meanings • information as being “in” books or files or databases. We put ideas “down on paper”, put concepts “into words” and so on. In each case, it appears as if information, ideas and concepts could exist “outside of” these “containers.”

11. The conduit metaphor • Ignores • creative and constructive nature of communication • Removes • the medium from the equation, renders it invisible to research and questioning. • Implies • media have minimal effect on message construction and message perception In the simplest of terms, the conduit metaphor lets human ideas slip out of human brains, so that, once you have recording technologies, you do not need human anymore (Reddy 1979, p. 310).

12. The computer can only help with cognitive activities and should be considered a tool, nothing more – Gantt, Claiborne, 1985

13. Does my word processor have a personality?Social responses to interactive media

15. Thank you! • … yes I mean you

16. People are suckers for flattery…… even for undeserved flattery(Cialdini, 1993) • People believe flattery • People like flatterers • Flattery is immune to validity • Criticism is not immune to validity • People prefer flattery to criticism

17. You can catch more flies with honey than with vinegar – anon.… but what does this mean for Ed Tech?

18. Will flattery get computers anywhere? (Fogg & Nass, 1999) • Simple computer game, akin to 20 questions, with feedback (no feedback, praise, criticism * with reason, arbitrary) • People believed and liked computers that flattered them • People didn’t care if flattery was valid • Criticism was only believed if it was valid • People disliked computers that criticized them, regardless of validity

19. So what’s going on here? • Surely people don’t think the computer means it! • Maybe it is an expertise thing. Expert users won’t fall for it. • Maybe it’s a fluke. Just works for flattery (and criticism) not for other things.

20. … sorry, but it gets stranger! • Are people polite to machines? • Do people ascribe personalities to machines? • Do people ascribe gender to machines? • Can people be made to treat computers as teammates!

21. Reciprocal self-disclosure • 3 conditions No reciprocity • What has been your biggest disappointment in life? Reciprocity • This computer has been configured to run at speeds upto 266 MHz. But 90% of computer users don’t use applications that require these speeds. So this computer rarely gets used to its full potential. What has been your biggest disappointment in life? No disclosure (controlled for length) • You are now ready for the next question in the interview. The next question is about disappointment. In this question, you will be asked about the biggest disappointments in your life. The specific question is as follows: What has been your biggest disappointment in life?

22. … and? • Self disclosure tendencies are consistent with the norms of reciprocity • Responses in the reciprocity condition were higher in intimacy (measured in terms of depth and breadth) than responses in the other two conditions

23. Computers As Social Actors • People (not just children) respond to computers, television, and new media like real people and places • People apply social rules and norms to media (images, television, computers) The Media Equationby Byron Reeves & Clifford Nass

24. Perception of Intelligence • Naïve theories of intelligence • Do they apply to artifacts?

25. Computers with accents Alvarez-Torres, María José Mishra, Punya alvarez3@msu.edu punya@msu.edu

26. How is nativeness generated? • Meet Susan & Carmen, English Language Tutors • Susan: Programmed in USA • Carmen: Programmed in Mexico • Susan: Clear legible native (mid-western) accent • Carmen: Clear legible Hispanic accent • Note: Only the instructions were voiced

27. Figure 2. Design of study 2 (ongoing) • Background questionnaire •  • Native computer Non-native computer • N=30 N=30 •  • Credibility questionnaire* • Distracter task • Final test (Recall + data theory integration + transfer) • * analysis completed

28. Credibility Questionnaire • 10 items Likert scale used previously to assess teachers McCroskey & Young, 1981; McCroskey, Holdridge & Toomb, 1974 • Competence • Intelligent, trained, expert, informed, competent, bright • Character • Honest, sympathetic, high-character, trustworthy

29. Figure 3.Group responses to the credibility questionnaire

30. What a difference a voice makes! • A computer with a non-native accent is evaluated as being • Significantly less competent than one with a native accent • of lower character than one with a native accent • NOTE: None of the content was voiced! The computer just read out instructions

31. Coming back to flattery (praise) • A look back to flattery / criticism: • Effect of praise/criticism depends on context • (Attribution theory research: Meyer, 1982; Parsons et al., 1982; Nicholls & Miller, 1984; Graham & Barker, 1990) • Perception matters: • Praise/criticism related to perceived effort • Effort/ability inversely related • Praise given for success on an easy task has a negative effect on learner’s self-confidence • Criticism of a poor performance can have positive effects on learner’s self-confidence

32. Essentially • Teacher expectations can be unintentionally communicated to students and can influence student achievement beliefs (Dusek 1985, Edmonds 1979, Graham 1991, Rosenthal & Jacobson 1968, Stipek 1993, 1996, Weary, et. al., 1989).

33. Research based on HHI work(Meyer, Mittag & Engler, 1986) • Pairs of participants worked on problem solving task and received feedback from “teachers” • Manipulations • Scored versus non-scored (i.e. ability level measured or not measured by the teachers) • Feedback • Praise on success in easy task + No blame on failure on difficult task • versus • No praise on success in easy task + Blame for failure on difficult task • Each participant could see what feedback the other person received (though not the other person’s solution)

34. Results of HHI study • When teachers “knew” ability (scored condition) participants who received “No Praise for success & Blame for Failure” had a more positive evaluation of their own performance and greater positive affect • When ability was not known performance and affect did not differ with feedback

35. What we did (The HCI study) • Pairs of participants worked on computers solving task and received feedback from an evaluation machine • Manipulations • Scored versus non-scored (i.e. ability level measured or not measured by the teachers) • Feedback • Praise on success in easy task + No blame on failure on difficult task (Answer correct very impressive + Wrong answer. Task completed) • versus • No praise on success in easy task + Blame for failure on difficult task (Answer correct. Task completed + Wrong answer, should have done better) • Each participant could see what feedback the other person received (though not the other person’s solution)

36. What we found (HCI case) • Significant main effect for Feedback F(1, 110) = 5.482, p =.05 • Same story held for comparison of their performance with the other student, positive affect, negative affect • No interactions were found significant

37. What does this mean… • Praise always won out • People ARE suckers for flattery • People DO respond socially to computers • But wait a minute… • Mediated life is not equal to real life • The Media Equation doesn’t apply across the board

38. Limitations and further responses... • Clearly Media do NOT equal Real Life in all situations. We don’t eat a picture of a cake, for instance (though it may make us salivate) • The importance of individual differences (Reader response, Critical theories, Information ecologies etc.) • This is just one part of a giant (technological-social-psychological) mosaic that is continually evolving

39. Current studies • Power in HCI • Waiting and feedback • Responses to pedagogical agents • Instructor presence in online courses • Children and anthropomorphic toys • With Kathryn H., Steven W., Robert B….

40. Conclusions and Implications of the Media Equation • Media = Real Life • Not in all cases (need more research) • Social reactions are easy to manufacture • Communication theory applies to media • Interaction design is more than graphic design • Interaction design is more than sequencing screens • Interaction design IS Psychological Design • In contrast to the conduit metaphor • MEDIA AS SOCIAL ACTOR

41. Why does it happen? • Machines and mindlessness • Automaticity, Culturally determined scripts (Humans use minimal effort — Langer, Bragh) • Individuals - overuse social categories (gender and ethnic stereotypes) - exhibit overlearned social behaviors (politeness, reciprocity) - display premature cognitive commitments (expertise, personality etc.) The fact that our understanding of how we follow a rule or give a name will be permanently vague does not interfere without actually obeying rules and naming things -- Wittgenstein …maybe it is different for children.

42. Why does it happen? • Computers fill social roles, use language, interact in real time etc. • • Old brain - new Media (Theory of Mind, social brain, cognitive illusion) • (perception as unconscious inference —Helmholtz)

43. Why computers? • Use of Language: A trait specific to humans • Interactivity: i.e. the extent to which an entity responds to multiple prior inputs rather than the immediately prior input. • Computer fill social roles. A role is a normatively prescribed set of behaviors associated with an actor or actors. E.g. Tutor, doctor, mother etc. (Berger & Luckman, 1967) • Speech: Speech processing is different from other kinds of sound processing • Possession of a human like face: Face perception is a key mental module

44. Implications Understand media effects & improve media design … for design of educational technology (social psychology, ethics, training the next generation) … for media literacy … for understanding media effects(and ourselves: what does it mean to be human?)

45. Alternate explanations • Deficiency: Lack of knowledge (children); lack of experience (naïve users of technology); lack of balanced socio-emotional perspective • Technology as a proxy for the creator / designer (the design stance writ large) e.g. Heider & Simmel movie; or ELIZA

46. Media literacy: As creators • Character creation is a black art. Non one ever wrote a book on how to be good at it – Paul White in the NewMedia interview, 7/12/00 http://www.newmedia.com/ • Few people are ever taught to create successful, satisfying experiences for others. Mostly, these folks are in the performing arts: dancers, comedians, storytellers, singers, actors, etc. I now wish I had more training in theatre and performing arts to rely on... especially in improvisational theater. That's like the highest form of interactivity. (p. 40 - 41) – Nathan Shedroff, designer, internet.au.(February). Interview: vivid: strikingly bright.

47. Media Literacy: As users • Become sensitive to media creators and advertisers using such techniques (for instance hagglezone.com) • Adds a new dimension to media literacy… • …especially for children

48. Faces are everywhere...

49. Topffer and the invention of the cartoons...

50. Topffer and his work...