Xinjiang: A Case Study in China’s Minority Policies

1. Xinjiang: A Case Study in China’s Minority Policies Kara Abramson Congressional-Executive Commission on China

2. Overview of Today’s Talk • China’s Minority Policies • Case Study: Xinjiang • Setting the Scene: The geography and people of the region known today as Xinjiang • “Contested Histories”: Xinjiang’s Past • Xinjiang Under PRC Rule: Current Issues • What Happened in Urumqi in July 2009? • Xinjiang Beyond the Headlines: Contemporary Uyghur Culture

3. 少数民族Shǎoshù Mínzú China’s Minority Policies

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5. Historical Overview • Ethnicity in Chinese history • Ethnic Groups/Minzu in the PRC • System of categorization • Soviet Tradition • Fixed identities • Stalinist definition • Common territory, language, economy, and psychological nature • 民族识别 Mínzú shíbié • 民族工作 mínzú gōngzuò

7. Ethnic Minorities Today • 8.49% of the population, including: • Tibetan • Korean • Mongol • Russian • Tajik • Uyghur (Uighur/Uygur)

11. Also: • Zhuang • Hui • Miao • Yi • Lhoba

15. China’s Minorities • Location: • About 5/8ths of China’s total area • Languages: • Over 60, at least 5 different language families • Religions: • Muslim, Buddhist, “minority” religions, Christian

18. Regional Autonomy • By end of 2003: • 5 Provincial-level autonomous regions • 30 autonomous prefectures • 120 autonomous counties

19. Legal Framework for Autonomy: Regional Ethnic Autonomy Law (REAL) • Grants additional legislative powers • Describes scope of regional autonomy • Freedom to use and develop minority languages • Freedom of religious belief • Preferential policies • Administration of finances • Education in minority languages • Train local cadres but also send skilled personnel from elsewhere in China to these regions

20. REAL successes and limitations • Gives recognition and protection for minority groups • Some leeway for local customs BUT • Vague wording • Legislation must be submitted to higher bodies for approval and must not contradict basic policies • Limited enforcement and monitoring • General Rule of Law issues

21. Case Study: Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region (XUAR) 新疆维吾尔自治区Xīnjiāng Wéiwúěr Zìzhìqū

22. Setting the Scene: The geography and people of the region known today as Xinjiang http://johomaps.com/as/china/xinjiang/xinjiang1.html http://xinjiang_noite.images9.com/map_prc_xinjiang.html

23. Population • Total population 21.81 million (1.63% of China’s total) • Uyghurs (ئۇيغۇر ，维吾尔族，Wéiwú‘ěrzú，维族) • Turkic • Speak Uyghur (close to Uzbek and Turkish) • Sunni Muslim • Other groups include: • Han, Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, Tajiks, Mongols, Russian, Hui

25. “Contested Histories”: Xinjiang’s Past 新疆，古称西域，自古以来就是中国不可分割的一部分

26. “Contested Histories”: Xinjiang’s Past http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/19/world/asia/19mummy.html http://www.ewas.us/Spring.Death.2010.htm

27. “Contested Histories” • Uyghur Empire (744-840, based in Mongolia) • Uyghur state in the north (840-1370) • Karakhanid dynasty in the south (840-1211) • Chaghataids Mongols (14th-17th c.) • Local rulers strong • Sufi influence • Jungars (late 17th c.- mid-18th c.) • Qing (1750s-1911) • East Turkistan Republic (aka East Turkistan Islamic Republic) (1933-1934) • East Turkistan Republic (1944-1949)

28. “Contested Histories”—Modern Uyghur Identity • East Turkistan/Uyghuristan • Turkic identity

29. Xinjiang Under PRC Rule: Current Issues • 1955 Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region established • MinorityPolicy—Uyghurs as 少数民族 • Xinjiang in the news: human rights, terrorism, and Guantanamo

30. Security Measures and Terrorism • Reports of terrorist attacks in 1990s and 2000s • East Turkistan Islamic Movement (aka East Turkistan Islamic Party) placed on State Dept. Terrorist Exclusion List, UN list • Scope of Terrorist Threat Appears Unclear • Chinese government reporting on terrorism limited and inconsistent • Restrictions on free press hinder information gathering • Government has conflated ordinary criminal activity with terrorism and peaceful expressions of dissent with separatism

31. Religion • Constitution protects freedom of religious belief and “normal” religious activities • 5 recognized religions, including Islam • Islam in Xinjiang: • “Religious extremism” and “illegal religious activities” identified as threats to region’s security • Campaigns against private religious schools, curbs over access to mosques, observance of Ramadan, veiling and beards

33. Freedom of Expression • Regulation on Ethnic Unity • Nurmemet Yasin • Mehbube Ablesh

34. Representation in Government • NPC Representation • Head of Autonomous govt to be ethnic minority

35. Employment • Law encourages hiring of ethnic minorities and prohibits discrimination in employment, but…

36. 招聘 汉族服务员 Zhāopìn Hànzú fúwùyuán

37. Language and Education • Language and Education • Law says ethnic minorities may use own languages • Traditionally had 2 tracks for Schooling and Exams for minorities in China (including in Xinjiang) • 民考民 Mínkǎomín and 民考汉 Mínkǎohàn • New efforts to promote “Bilingual Education” have translated into decrease in Uyghur in Xinjiang

38. Development • Government support • Great Western Development • Some improvements, but also problems: • Distribution of resources • Lack of Input from local communities • Demographic pressures

39. What Happened in Urumqi in July 2009? • Reported attack on Uyghur factory workers in Guangdong in late June 2009 • Uyghurs demonstrate on July 5 • Initially peaceful, police reportedly use force, violent attacks take place

40. What Happened in Urumqi in July 2009? • Authorities blame World Uyghur Congress and its leader Rebiya Kadeer for organizing “riots” and instigating people in China

41. What Happened in Urumqi in July 2009? • July 7—Han revenge attacks, Uyghur women demonstrate • Internet shut down until May 2010 • Trials ongoing—for violent crimes and acts of free expression or peaceful protest • New Party head appointed, government unveils cure-all development plan in May 2010

42. Xinjiang Beyond the Headlines • Contemporary society • Literary tradition • Uyghur music