Crime Victims: An Introduction to Victimology Sixth Edition

1. Crime Victims: An Introduction to VictimologySixth Edition By Andrew Karmen Chapter Eleven: Additional Groups of Victims with Special Problems

2. Date Rapes on Campuses • Maximalist Position vs. Minimalist Position • Epidemic occurrences • Least reported of all crimes • Not counting accurately • Difference between sexual assault and consensual sex • Need for more workshops for incoming freshmen on dating and intimacy

3. Campus Rape Surveys • 3,000 female students—32 colleges, 1987 • 17% attempted or completed acquaintance rape per year • Less than 5% reported to police • 5% sought assistance from rape crisis center • 50% of cases told no one • 84% knew the victim • 57% were on a date • Most incidents occurred off-campus

4. Drug-Facilitated Date Rape • Males surreptitiously administer “club drugs”—popular during early 90s • Rohypnol—Roofies • GHB—Liquid ecstasy • MDMA—Ecstasy • Ketamine—Special K • Large doses induce sedation and temporary amnesia—more so when used with alcohol • Can result in loss of consciousness

5. Drug-Facilitated Date Rape • Maximalists define “date rape drug” as any substance that renders the user incapable of saying “no” or asserting herself • Drug-Induced Rape Prevention Act of 1996 imposed stiff penalties for sale or possession • Education programs for awareness

6. Drug-Facilitated Date Rape • Minimalists question the “scourge” • Study in Great Britain reflected most date rapes were about binge drinking alone or combined with recreational drug use • Women “playing the victim” to avoid responsibility • Even minimalists agree males should not take advantage of women when under the influence

7. Campus Violence • College campuses are relatively safe • Property crimes far more prevalent than violent crimes • See Table 11.1, page 282: Crimes Committed on Campus

8. Victims of Crimes Committed at Schools • See Table 11.2, page 284 • Non-reporting continues to be a problem • Murders most accurately counted • See Figure 11.1, page 285 • Youngsters slain at school=1% of total youth killings • 2002—17 school aged children slain on school grounds while 2,036 murdered other locations

9. Victims of Workplace Violence • “Workplace Violence” terms coined in ’89 • “Going Postal” became common term • Four Different “threat assessment” strategies • Reduce odds intruder can come into workplace • Prevent outside disputes from coming into workplace • Protect employees who deal with irate customers, unruly students, disturbed patients and inmates • Safeguard employees from disgruntled current or former employees

10. Victims of Workplace Violence • Most dangerous jobs—Figure 11.2, page 287 • Being Killed on the Job • Taxi drivers and chauffeurs • Police/Detectives • Being Injured on the Job • Law enforcement jobs • Workers in mental health field • College Professor—safest job

11. Individuals Menaced by Stalkers • The term “stalker” was coined in the 80s • California established first anti-stalking legislation in 1990 • Two Types of Stalking • Celebrity stalking—relatively rare • Prior relationship stalking—more common Very few stalking charges nationally each year Most victims are women and offenders are ex-husbands and ex-boyfriends who are jealous and possessive Targets of non-sensual stalking likely harassed by mentally ill person

12. Individuals Menaced by Stalkers • Elements of Stalking Crime • 1. Victim has reasonable fear of death or great bodily injury • 2. Credible threat of violence • By 1994, all states had criminalized stalking practices.

13. Individuals Menaced by Stalkers • Nationwide Survey—Stalking during lifetime • 1 out of every 12 women • 1 out of every 45 men • Most targets were female—78% • Most perpetrators were male—87%

14. Individuals Menaced by Stalkers • Self Protective Measures: • Report crime • Keep corroborating evidence • Get restraining order • Unlisted phone • Trap incoming calls • Change locks • Vary daily routine • Move if necessary

15. Cyberstalking • Online harassment—online abuse—cyber harassment • Use of internet or electronic communications to pass along threats • Police often lack resources to investigate • Multi-jurisdictional task forces work cases • Prosecutors lack resources to prosecute • Only 16% of prosecutor offices nationwide charged someone in 2001

16. Officers Injured/Killed in Line of Duty • “As the first line of defense for the social order, law enforcement agents serve as a lightning rod, attracting and absorbing the bolts of discontent emanating from alienated individuals and hostile groups within society.”—Author • Often considered to be the most heinous of all crimes and usually punishable by death in most states

17. Officers Injured/Killed in Line of Duty • Number of deaths peaked in 1979, dropped in the 80s, and then became fairly stable • See Trends Graph, Figure 11.3, page 292 (covers 1973-2004) • Most Likely to be Killed • Easy going and good natured • Less inclined to use force in situations involving mentally ill or armed person • Involved in some kind or procedural miscue

18. Officers Injured/Killed in Line of Duty • Statistical Portrait of Murdered Officers: • 95% were males • 84% were white • 70% less than 40 years old • 54% working in Southern U.S. • 96% killed by gunfire • 55% were wearing protective body armor

19. Victims of Bias/Hate Crimes • Crimes motivated by hate for a particular group • 1990 enacted Hate Crimes Statistics Act • FBI to gather data annually on bias crimes • 2004 FBI reported 7,650 hate crimes (16% of law enforcement agencies reported a hate crime) • 53% racial motivation—mainly against blacks • 13% ethnic motivation—mainly Jewish • 18% religious intolerance • 16% sexual preference 75% of law enforcement agencies report hate/bias crimes nationally

20. Criminal Justice Reforms: Hate/Bias Crimes • Since 80s there are stiffer penalties • By 2000, most agencies had specially trained units to investigate hate/bias crimes • Not all states protect homosexuals • Recent legislation provides for civil remedies • States hesitant to protect homosexuals to give appearance of endorsement of lifestyle • Hate crimes on college campus virtually non- existent

21. Terrorism • Violence taking form of bombing, assassination, kidnapping for ransom, hostage taking, and skyjacking • FBI reports 1980-1999 • 327 incidents in U.S. suspected • 239 verified • 73% by domestic terrorists • 27% by international terrorists

22. Terrorism • 1993 Trade Tower attack was the worst until 9/11 • 2001 Trade Tower—Al Qaeda killed 2,838 in Towers, 189 at Pentagon, and 44 in Pennsylvania plane crash • See Figure 11.5, page 303: Casualties of Terrorism Compensation of 9/11 Victims • Set precedent for future and past terrorist victims?

23. Key Terms