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Reasoning

Reasoning. The Debate Triangle. Evidence. Claims. Reasoning. Claims & Evidence. Claims are statements of what you’ll be proving. Evidence consists of those items of information discovered through research and offered as proof in support of your claim. Reasoning & Proof.

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Reasoning

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  1. Reasoning

  2. The Debate Triangle Evidence Claims Reasoning

  3. Claims & Evidence • Claims are statements of what you’ll be proving. • Evidenceconsists of those items of information discovered through research and offered as proof in support of your claim.

  4. Reasoning & Proof • Reasoning is the process of supporting a claim through explanation. Reasoning establishes the logical connection between a claim and its evidence, and all claims and the conclusion. • Proof is the product of evidence and reasoning which serves as sufficient reason to make the claim acceptable.

  5. P = E + R PROOF = EVIDENCE + REASONING

  6. Types of Reasoning • Generalization • Analogy • Cause-Effect • Sign • Scientific Methodology (Statistics) • Authority

  7. Generalization • If individual members of a group share a characteristic, then the characteristic will apply to all members of the group. • If you draw a general conclusion based on some specific examples, you have made a Generalization. • The Example is the evidence offered in support of a Generalization.

  8. Three tests for a sound generalization…

  9. #1 Are there enough examples? • If Generalization is well known, you only need a few examples • For a generalization not so well known, you might need many examples • Three examples is usually sufficient.

  10. #2 • Are the examples typical of the group? • A typical example is one that represents the group as a kind of average case. • Don’t use extreme cases as examples.

  11. #3 • Are there significant counterexamples? • Counterexamples are instances in which the generalization does not hold true.

  12. Reasoning by Analogy • Basically a comparison: You draw a conclusion about an unknown based on its similarity to a model that’s known. • The Analogy makes the assumption “This unknown example is like that known example.” • There are always differences between the known and unknown example—the closeness of fit between your model and the unknown is what counts.

  13. What makes a good Analogy? • The test for a good analogy is whether the essential similarities outweigh the essential differences in the characteristic under consideration. • If the two examples are not similar in the essential areas, we have a False Analogy. • An Extended Analogy is a more detailed examination of a known to an unknown, often using a list of many points of comparison.

  14. Two types of Analogies • Literal Analogy is one in which we make a direct comparison between two things. • Figurative Analogy is where we compare the relationship between two things to the relationship between two OTHER things to describe how one relationship is like another.

  15. Cause-Effect Reasoning • Two phenomena (objects or events) are observed interacting in some process and it is assumed that one of them causes the other. • The form of this argument is “If … then …” • Very important for Debate.

  16. Cause-Effect • There is a connecting link between two phenomena • This connection is predictable

  17. Linkage between Phenomena • Coincidence – 0% linkage —in the realm of possible, but not at all predictable. • Association — where one phenomena is found, the other is likely to be found

  18. More linkage … • Correlation — stronger than association … two phenomena typically found together, and changes in one cause changes in the other. • Direct correlation — when one phenomena increases, the other also increases • Inverse correlation — when one phenomenon increses the other one decreases

  19. Intervening Causes … • The key here is how much can get between the cause and the effect. • Finally, we have Causality. One phenomenon directly causes the other phenomena to happen.

  20. Sign Argument • When one thing occurs, so does another • The sign is the observed phenomena (think symptom in medicine … ) • The signified is the phenomenon referred to or predicted by the sign • Sign Arguments are reversible.

  21. Authority • Claim is based entirely on what the “authority” or expert says. • Apply same rules for “expertise” in Evidence.

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