PERCEPTION

1. PERCEPTION “ If everyone perceived everything in the same way things would be a lot simpler.” ----- Moorhead & Griffin. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

2. “Perception can be defined as a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.” “ Perception can be defined as the process of receiving, selection, organizing, interpreting, checking, and reacting to sensory stimuli or data.” Perception is a process of reacting over sensations. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

3. PERCEPTUAL PROCESS Perceiver Receiving Selecting Organizing Reacting Checking Interpreting Perceiver Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

4. Process of selecting stimuli Internal & External Factors External factors:- Visual • Nature Auditory Loud Sound • Intensity Soft Sound • Contrast • Motion • Location • Size • Repetition • Novelty Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

5. INTERNAL FACTORS LEARNING:- Learning cognitive factors, has considerable influence on perception. If creates expectancy in people, and they see what they want to. M – A – C – T – A – V – I – S – H M – A – C – D – O – N – A – L – D M – A – C – B – E – T – H M – A – C – H – I – N – E – R – Y Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

6. Psychological Needs:- Needs play a significant role in perceptual selectivity. Unreal things often look real because of derived needs- Ex : An expected telephonic call Ex : Seeing sand from distance as food when person is hungry. Age Difference:- Old executives complain about the young ones incapable to take tough decisions. While, young executives complain about the old resistant to change. Interest:- Perception is unconsciously influenced by the interests of the perceiver. Ambivalences:- Perception getting distracted due to two different views. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

7. THE ORGANISING PROCESS: Till now the perceptual selection has been made on the basis of internal and external factors. Next, the received stimuli must be organized, then only inferences can be drawn. Figure ground :- It is considered to the most basis form of perceptual organization. This principle state that the relationship of a target to its background influences perception ie perceived objects stand out as separable from their general background. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

8. Basis of Grouping SIMILARITY --------------------------------------------- ++++++++++++++++++++++++++ --------------------------------------------- ++++++++++++++++++++++++++ --------------------------------------------- Proximity Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

9. CLOSURE Perceptual Constancy A more subtle part of perceptual organization is constancy, our ability to perceive certain characteristics of an object as remaining constant, despite variations in the stimuli that provide us with conflicting information. ie Shape constancy Size constancy Colour constancy Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

10. HALO EFFECT It refers to the tendency of perceiving people in term of good or bad, and ascribe all good qualities to one who is liked and all bad qualities to another who is disliked. Characteristic 1 LOW HIGH Characteristic 2 LOW HIGH Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

11. THE INTERPRETATION PROCESS After the data have been received and organized, the perceiver interprets or assigns meaning to the information. Factors which contribute to interpretation • Perceptual Set:- Previously held beliefs about objects, influence an individual’s perceptions of similar objects. Ex :- Managers general perception about workers. • Attribution :- It refers to the process by which the individual assigns causes to the behaviour be conceives. • Stereotyping :- It is the tendency for a person’s perceptions of another to be influenced by the social group to which the other belongs. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

12. Perceptual Defence An individual is liked to put a defence when confronted with confliction, unacceptable or threatening stimuli Factors influencing perception • Perceiver’s Characteristic. • Perceived Characteristic Appearance Behaviour 3. Situational Characteristics Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

13. Perception and OB • Differences in the perception of managers and subordinates. • Perception at the time of candidate’s selection. • Performance appraisal. • Motivational theory of X & Y. • Impressions management. assessment of employee’s loyalty & commitment towards organization Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

14. LEARNING “ You cannot teach a man anything. You can only help him discover it with himself.” Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

15. “ Learningmay be defined as a relativelypermanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of prior experience.” As learning is understand as the modification of behaviour through practice, training or experience. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

16. Nature of Learning:- • Learning involves change, although the change may be for good or bad from an organization’s point. • All change do not reflect learning. To constitute learning, change should be relatively permanent. • Learning is reflected in behaviour. A change in an individual’s though process or attitudes, not accompanied by behaviour, is no learning. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

17. Nature of Learning • Learning involves change, although the change may be good or bad from an organization's point. • All changes do not reflect learning. To constitute learning, change should be relatively permanent. • Learning is reflected in behaviour. A change in an individual’s thought process or attitudes, not accompanied by behaviour, is no learning. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

18. The change in behaviour should occur as a result of experience, practice, or training. • The practice or experience must be reinforced in order for learning to occur. If reinforcement does not accompany the practice, the behaviour will eventually disappear. • Learning is beyond schooling , occurs throughout life. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

19. HOW DOES LEARNING OCCURS? There are several basis which supports the learning CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Classical conditioning, the association of one event with another desired event resulting in a behaviour is one of the most easy to understand processes of learning. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

20. PAVLOV’S EXPERIMENT The diagram of classical conditioning:- Before conditioning CS NO ( Bell ) (Response ) US UR ( Food ) ( Salivation ) During conditioning After conditioning CS (Bell) CS CR US UR (Bell) (Salivation) (Bell) ( Salivation ) Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

21. CS – Conditioned stimulus (object) US – Unconditioned stimulus (object) UR – Unconditioned reflex ( response ) CR – Conditioned reflex (response) Ex. The cleaning of office at the time of visit from head office, made the workers learn it, and even in future at the time of just cleaning even without any cleaning made them ready for it. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

22. SKINNER’S CONCEPTOPERANT CONDITIONING(Instrumental Conditioning) Operant conditioning argues that behaviour is a function of its consequences are favourable. Behaviour is not likely to be repeated if the consequences are unfavourable. The term operant indicates that the organism operates on its environment to generate consequences. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

23. The relation between consequences and response summarizes quite concisely a basic learning process that occurs over time, in which a person change his behaviour based on his past experiences. Ex : Boss promises his employee suitable reward in next performance appraisal, if he works overtime. But he did not keep his words. So, next time, if boss asks him to do over-time, he will come with all possible excuses, so as he escape to work over-time. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

24. COGNITIVE THEORY OF LEARNING Cognition refer to an individual’s though, knowledge, interpretations, understand or ideas about himself and his environment. This theory of learning assumes that the organism learns the meaning of various objects and learned responses depending upon the meaning assigned. In comparison to classical and operant conditioning where learning is based n (S – R) approach and the role of organism is ignored, here the role of organism in receiving, memorizing, retrieving and interpreting stimuli and reacting is recognized. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

25. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY This is also known as observational learning, stresses upon the ability of an individual to learn by observing models – parents, teachers, peers, motion pictures, TV artists, bosses etc. Attention Retention Production Reinforcement Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

26. LEARNING AND OB: As learning is a fundamental variable in human behaviour. There is little OB, that is not directly or indirectly affected by learning. Applications of learning to organizational situations:- • Using lotteries to reduce absenteeism. • Well – pay Vs sick – pay . • Employee indiscipline. • Developing training programmes. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

27. PERSONALITY • The word personality in English is derived from the latin PERSONA. • The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with other. • “ Personality can be described as how a person affects other, how he understands and views himself, and his pattern of inner and outer measurable traits.” Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

28. Thus personality represents the sum total of several attributes which manifest themselves in an individual; • The ability of the individual to organize and integrate all the qualities so as to give meaning to life; • And the uniqueness of the situation which influences behaviour of an individual. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

29. DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY • Heredity • Environment • Contribution From The Family • Socialization Process • Situational Considerations Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

30. Major personality traits influencing OB • Locus of control :- The degree to which people believe they are masters of their own fate. The first type :- Internals Individuals who believe that they control what happens to them. Externals Individuals who believe that what happens to them is controlled by outside forces such as luck or chance. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

31. 2). Machiavellianism – Degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional Intelligence, and believes that ends can justify means. It is believed that high – mach flourish when • They interact face –to – face with others. • When the situation has a minimum number of rules and regulations; thus allowing latitude for improvisation. • Risk – Taking :- People differ in their willingness to take chances. Their propensity to assume or avoid risk has been shown to have an impact on how long it takes managers to make a decision and how much information they require before making their choice. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

32. 4). Self – Esteem :-People differ in the degree to which they like or dislike themselves. This trait is called self – esteem. The research on self – esteem (SE) offers some interesting insights into organizational behaviour. For ex: Self Esteem is directly related to expectations for success. 5).Self – Monitoring :- A personality traits that measure an individual’s ability to adjust his or her behaviour to external situational factors. Individuals high in adjusting their behaviour to external situational factors. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

33. 6).Introversion and Extroversion: These are the most common descriptions of personality traits. These terms are normally associated with an individual’s sociability and interpersonal orientation. Extroverts Gregarious & Social individuals. Introverts Shy, Quiet, Retining. Extroverts are more suitable for position that requires considerable interaction with others. While introverts are more inclined to excel at tasks that require though and analytical skills. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

34. 7). ACHIEVEMENT ORIENTATION: Achievement Orientation is another personality character which varies among people and which can be used to predict certain behaviours. Employees with a high need to achieve, continually strive to do things better. They want to overcome obstacles, and the result are due to their actions. On the job, high achievers will perform better where is moderate difficulty, direct – relationship between efforts and reward. They do wonders in sales, sports, in management. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

35. 8). Type A and type B personality: Type A • Are always moving, walking and eating rapidly. • Highly impatient at most events time. • Strive to think or do two more things at once. • Cannot cope with leisure. • Are obsessed with numbers. Type B • Never suffers from a sense of time urgency. • Feel no need to display or discuss either their achievement or accomplishments unless asked. • Play for fun and relaxation • Can relax without guilt. Type A’s will make most successful sales people and senior executives are usually type B’s. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

36. THEORIES ON PERSONALITY 1). Type theories. Type theories place personalities into clearly identifiable categories. There are two basis to classify personalities on the basis of type. • On the basis of body build. Ie relationship are established between features of face or body and personality. Ex : Short and plumb person are said sociable, relaxed, even – tempered . • Heavy set muscular individual was described as noisy, fond of physical activity. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

37. b) On the basis of psychological factors. Like introverts & Extroverts. Introverts are characterized by a greater sensitivity and concern for feelings and more comfortable dealing with abstracts things. Extroverts are more oriented towards other people, events and objects. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

38. 2). Trait theories Traits theory is another way of understanding personality. A personality trait is understood as an enduring attribute of a person that appears consistently in a variety of situations, A trait differentiates one from another in a relatively permanent or consistent way. But traits are reactions, not something a person possesses. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

39. 3). Psychoanalytic theories SIGMUND FREUD is credited with this. He says personality is composed of three structures: id, ego, and superego. The ID comes from latin words ‘it’, refers to innate component of personality. It is a mental agency containing inherited at birth. ( PLEASURE ) The EGO mental images do not satisfy needs. As the starving man cannot satisfy his hunger by eating images. So reality must be considered. The ego develops out of the id because of the necessity for dealing with real world. ( REALITY ) The SUPER EGO – in order for a person to function constructively in society, he should acquires a system of values, norms, ethics and attitudes which are reasonably compatible with that society – Internalized part of an individual. ( PERFECTION ) Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

40. STRESS • Modern life is full of stress because of urbanisation, industrialisation and increase in scale of operations in soceity. • Four terms used synonymously as stress: • Stress; • Strain; • Conflict; • Pressure. • Stress is a term basically used in engg. Which means pressure of an object on another; • This term was introduced into the social sciences by HANS SELYE in 1936 Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

41. By HANS SELYE , 1974 “ It is a non-specifically induced changes with in a biological system. It is non specific because any adaptation to a problem faced by the body irrespective of the nature of the problem is included. “Stress is any condition that disturbs normal functioning.” ARNOLD , 1960 • Stress can be defined as an adaptive response to an external factor that results in physical, psychological or behavioural deriations in an individual. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

42. Main features of Stress • Stress may be result in any kind of derivation – physical, psychological,or behavioural pattern – in the person; • Stress may be result of individual’s interaction with environmental stimuli; • It is not necessary that stress is always bad, it is good also.e.g stress for creative work, competition etc. • Stress can be either temporary/long term, mild/ severe, depending on how long it causes continue, how powerful they are, and how strong the individual’s powers are. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

43. Causes of Stress(Conditions that tend to cause stress are called stressors.) Various stressors can be grouped in to 4 categories: • Individual stressors: • Life and Career changes; • Personality type; • Role characteristics:- (1) Role conflict; (2)Role ambiguity. • Group stressors: • Lack of group cohesiveness; • Lack o social support; • Conflict. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

44. 3) Organisational Stressors • Organisational policies; • Organisational structure; • Organisational processes;- poor communication, inadequate feed back,etc. • Physical conditions 4) Extra organisational stressors: • Social and technical changes; • Economic & Financial conditions; • Social class conflict; • Community conditions. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

45. INDIVIDUALS Interpersonal stressors Job Related stressors • Role conflict - Nature of job • Role Ambiguity - In built stress • Role overload - Transfer • Ethical dilemmas - Travel time pressure • Unsatisfactory career progress INDIVIDUAL Inter personal stressors Inter organisational stressors • Relation with peers - Noise ,superiors, subordinates - Heat lighting • Inter personal commu. - Limited Resources • Inter personal conflict - No career paths organisational stressors Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

46. Effect of stress(Stress affects human beings physically, psychologically and behaviorally) • Physical problem: like- physical reaction (a) Excitability of nerves; (b) Increased heart rate; (c) Decrease in body pressure; (d) High blood pressure; (e) High level of cholestrol; (f) Heart disease; (g) Uleer, arthritis. (2) Psychological problem: (a) Anger; (b) Anxiety (c) Depression; (d) Nervousness (e)Irritability (f) Tension; (g) Boredom. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

47. (3) Behavioural problem: • Alcholism; • Drug addiction; • Increased smoking; • Sleeplessness ; • Under/overeating; • Suicide; • Absenteeism & Turnover. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

48. Coping strategies for Stress • Individual coping strategies:- • Physical exercises; • Relaxation • Work home transition;- In this technique, a person may attend to less pressure inducing type or routine work during the last 30-40min of work time; I.e review of the day’s activities • Cognitive therapy:Lectures and interactive discussion sessions are arranged to help participants. • Networking:- It is a formation of close, associations with trusted, empathetic coworkers and colleagues who are good listeners and confidence builders. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

49. Organisational Coping Strategies • Supportive organisational climate; • Job Enrichment; • Organisational Role clarity; • Career planning & Counseling; • Stress control workshops and employee Assistance programmes. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora

50. Some Stress Buster Exercises. You will really find them interesting. Prepared by: Ms. Ritu Arora