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Dr. ILKSOY ASLIM

Dr. ILKSOY ASLIM. IR 426 MIDDLE EAST LECTURE NOTES. EGYPT. Dynamics shaping Egyptian political life: 1922 Unilateral independence from British Protectorate rule 1936 Independence Year 1952 Coup D’etat 1953 Jamal Abdul Nasser came to power 1956 Suez War. EGYPT. EGYPT.

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Dr. ILKSOY ASLIM

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  1. Dr. ILKSOY ASLIM IR 426 MIDDLE EAST LECTURE NOTES

  2. EGYPT Dynamics shaping Egyptian political life: 1922 Unilateral independence from British Protectorate rule 1936 Independence Year 1952 Coup D’etat 1953 Jamal Abdul Nasser came to power 1956 Suez War

  3. EGYPT

  4. EGYPT Dynamics shaping Egyptian political life: 1922 Unilateral independence from British Protectorate rule 1936 Independence Year 1952 Coup D’etat 1953 Jamal Abdul Nasser came to power 1956 Suez War

  5. Continue... 6. 1962 Establishment of “ASU”: Arab Socialist Union (Nasser’s political party) 7. Increase in armed forces 8. Extention of bureaucracy 9. 1967 Arab-Israeli War 10. Anwar Sadat Era (1970 – 1981) 11. 1977 onwards: Sadat’s policy of political liberalization

  6. Nasser Era: 1953 - 1969 • Impact of Nasserism • Single – party system • Electoral Law • Relations with the Ikhwan al- Muslimin; Muslim Brotherhood Society: “Uneasy Relationship” • Role of Presidency • Parliament • Army

  7. Single-Party System in Egypt under Nasser Presidency: • Please read: Roger Owen, “State, Power and Politics in the Making of the Modern Middle East”; pp: 32 – 54. Egypt is one of the cases...

  8. SADAT Era: • Towards a multi-party system: Dissolution of ASU into 3 political parties: Right, Left & Center Center is named as National Democrat Party (NDP) which still the “ruling party” of Egypt today... • Economic liberalization policies • Camp David Accords with Israel

  9. Camp David Accords: 1978 -79 • Under the US auspicies (US President Jimmy Carter) Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin and Egyptian President Sadat signed the Camp David Accords. • Peace-making with Israel: Is the Camp David Accords led to the normalization of relations with Israel? • Assassination of Sadat in 1981

  10. DEMOCRATIZATIONOld Politics & New Problem • Democratization and political liberalization in the Middle East became the catchworks of the 1990s, reflecting a new crisis of legitimacy for many regimes and pressure from the masses for change and progress.

  11. The drive for democratization; • Presupposed the absence of democratic trends in the region and the incompatibility of Arab and Muslim ideologies with accompanying notions of freedom, pluralism and participation. • As Simon Bromley suggests; “democracies are STRANGERS to the Middle East...The limited post-independence experiments with democratic politics did not survive the rise of nationalist forces searching modernization and independence...” • The regimes were affected either by monarchical rules or oil wealth!

  12. 1990s... Democratization in the ME • During 1990s the path of democratization was seen as a positive phenomenon. • The question of cultural authenticity = rejection of western models of governments among the locals • Orientalism (Bernard Lewis)

  13. For instance Lewis; • Argues that the GAP between western and Arab notions of freedom highlights the antipathy of the particular culture to democracy...

  14. Examples of democratic openings: • Many states of the ME have been seen to engage in some form of political liberalizing process such as more open elections in Jordan, Egypt, Algeria, Israel, Kuwait and Iran. • But there is a distinction between political liberalization & democratization.

  15. Political Liberalization; • Involves “the expansion of public space through the recognition and protection of civil and political liberties” • Democratization involves; “an expansion of political participation ... to provide citizens with a degree of real and meaningful collective control over public policy”

  16. ISRAEL: Aspects shaping Israeli political landscape For reference please see: Beverly Milton-Edwards, Chp: 6 (Section: Case study on Israel)

  17. Political History: • The modern state of Israel has developed from the Zionist campaign for a Jewish state in Palestine and the Balfour Declaration (1917) in which the Jewish demand for a national home was supported by Britain. • Under the British mandate (from 1922) in Palestine the Jewish community increased from 10% of the population in 1918 to about 30% in 1936. • Britain abandoned the partition solution and brought the Palestine problem to the United Nations in 1947. A UN special commission recommended partition and a resolution to that effect passed the General Assembly.

  18. The British mandate ended on 14 May 1948 and the independent Jewish state of Israel in Palestine was established. • The creation of the state was opposed by the Palestinian Arabs supported by Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Egypt, but after a violent conflict Israel survived and considerably enlarged its territory at the expense of the proposed Arab state. • A substantial Palestinian refugee was created as many Arabs fled from Israel-controlled territory. • Further Arab-Israeli wars took place in 1956 (Suez War), 1967 (Six Days War), 1973 War and 1982 Lebanese invasion. • As a result of these wars Israel extended its occupation to include all the territory of the former British mandate.

  19. Results of 1948 Arab-Israeli War: West Bank (including East Jerusalem) was annexed by Jordan and Gaza Strip was controlled by Egypt. • Results of 1967 Arab-Israeli War: West Bank & East Jerusalem, Gaza Strip and Golan Heights (from Syria) invaded by Israel.

  20. Dynamics constructing Israeli society: Dynamics constructing Israeli society

  21. There are four main dynamics shaping Israeli political system • Impact of Zionism and the idea of “return of Jewish diaspora to homeland” • Ethnic and religious differences between Arab Israelis and Jews • Impact of the Palestine Question and unsettlement of the Arab-Israeli dispute + Jews settlements on the Occupied Territories • Division among the secular Jews and religious groupings. The religious groups are broadly divided into two categories: • Zionist religious Jews (comprises 8% of Israeli soceity) • Anti-Zionist religious Jews (called Haredim comprises 4.5% of Israeli population)

  22. Political Parties in Israel: • For convenience the political parties may be divided into four groups; • The left is dominated by “Mapai” and transformed in 1968 into the Israeli Labour Party. They adopted a Socialist Zionist policy. Until 1977 Arab voters voted in fvaour for Mapai and the communists. • The right is dominated by two main group, “Herut” (freedom) which was in effect the old Revisionist party and the liberal Zionists who allied with Herut in 1964 to form Gahal (the forunner of Likudin 1973). The Likud is more successful among the Orientals. • The religious parties are MafDal and Shas • The last group is the communists in the country.

  23. From 1949-1977 Israeli governments were formed by coalitions led by Mapai (the Left). Until his retirement in 1963 the dominant political figure was David Ben Gurion who served as prime minister for the whole of the period from the Labour Party. • Cabinets in Israel were dominated by Ashkenazis (80% of the cabinet ministers were in this category) and 10% of them were sabras (that is born in Israel) and 10% were Orientals (Sephardic Jews).

  24. Labour’s domination of the goverment between 1948-1977 was reflected in its prominence in two other major Israeli institutions each of which had its origins in the mandatory period. One of them is Histadrut and the other is the army. • After independence Histadrut retained its position as the principal economic institution of Israel being at once trade union, employer, friendly soceity and provider of social services. In 1983 it has 1.6 million members and employed more than a quarter of a million people and ran the largest industrial enterprises in the country.

  25. SYRIA & LEBANON Politics, Power and civil war

  26. Ethnic groups • Arab 90.3%, Kurds, Armenians, and other 9.7% • Religions • Sunni Muslim 74%, other Muslim (includes Alawite, Druze) 16%, Christian (various denominations) 10%, Jewish (tiny communities in Damascus, Al Qamishli, and Aleppo)

  27. SYRIA: Al-Asad Rule • In the aftermath of the 1967 Arab-Israeli War: • Led to a change in the political power particularly in Iraq & Syria • In 1970 – Hafız Al-Asad took the control of the political power in Syria • Both Iraq & Syria will then ruled by single party regimes

  28. Impact of the Ba’th Party (Resurrection/ Reawakening) • The Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party (also spelled Ba'th or Baath which means "resurrection" or "renaissance" • It is a secularist political party with strong socialist and Arab nationalist interests, opposed to what it sees as "Western imperialism" and calling for the "renaissance" or "resurrection" of the Arab World and its unity in one united state.

  29. Its main ideas are: "Unity, Liberty, Socialism" (wahda, hurriya, ishtirakiya) — refers to Arab unity, freedom from non-Arab control and interference, and Arab socialism rather than to European socialism, or communism.

  30. Origins of Ba’th Party • The party was founded in Damascus, Syria in 1940 by the Syrian intellectuals Michel Aflaq, and Salah al-Bitar, and since its inception has established branches in different Arab countries, although the only countries it has ever held power in are Syria and Iraq. • In Syria it has had a monopoly on political power since the party's 1963 coup. • Ba'athists also seized power in Iraq in 1963, but were deposed some months later. They returned to power in a 1968 coup and remained the sole party of government until the 2003 Iraq invasion. Since then they have been banned in Iraq.

  31. Syria after 1970 • 1970 Hafız al-Asad became the President of Syrian Republic • 1973 New Constitution was adopted

  32. Syrian involvement in Lebanese Civil War – 1976 • 1973 Arab-Israeli War (Egypt & Syria) • 1978 – 79 Camp David Accords! • Syria was left alone in resisting againts Israel • Syrian main concern was how to prevent “Jordan & Lebanon” to recognize Israel

  33. 1975 – 1989 Civil War in Lebanon

  34. Demographics in Lebanon • Ethnic groups • Arab 95%, Armenian 4%, other 1% Religions • Muslim 59.7% (Shia, Sunni, Druze, Isma'ilite, Alawite or Nusayri), • Christian 39% (Maronite Catholic, Greek Orthodox, Armenian Orthodox, Syrian Catholic, Armenian Catholic, Syrian Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Assyrian, Copt, Protestant), • other 1.3% • **17 religious sects recognized

  35. French Mandate Rule over Lebanon (1920 – 1946) • Lebanon has become an independent country in 1946 like Syria • 1932 National Census (Nufüs Sayımı) • 1943 National Pact (Ulusal Pakt): establishment of a confessional political system based on ethnic & sectarian – religious – affiliations!!

  36. Delicate “Distribution of power” in Lebanon • Since 1946 Lebanon has been established on a confessional system where the political power is distributed/ allocated on the basis of population size. • Political Power is vested in the hands of three main branches: • President of the Republic will be elected from the Maronite community • Prime-minister will be elected from Sunni Community; • Speaker of the Parliament: will be elected from Shia community

  37. “Seats in the Parliament” will be based on the ratio 6:5 – Christian – Muslim Communities • Origins/ Roots of the Civil War in Lebanon: • Change in the demographic structure • 1970 – 71 Civil War in Jordan (Black September Episode) • Camps of the PLO in Southern Lebanon

  38. Lebanese Civil War: 1975 – 89 • Two camps were involved in the Civil War: The Lebanese Front (LF) & Lebanese National Movement (LNM) • Syrian intervention in 1976 • Israeli interventon in 1978 • Israeli intervention in 1982 (Sabra & Shatila)

  39. The war was ended in 1989 • Ta’if Accords 1989 in Saudi Arabia: An Arab League meeting – “Paylaşılmış Varlık Paktı” ... • “Syrian presence” in Lebanon was sustained with 30,000 troops until the assassination of Refiq Al-Hariri in 2004.

  40. International Relations of the Middle East: 1. The US & the Middle East 2. Euro-Med Partnership Project

  41. In the aftermath of the 1945; • The US policy towards the region was centered on; • “National security strategy”. • “Superpower Rivalry” • Establishing special relationships with some countries; like Iran (until 1979) & Israel • Survival of Israel: strategic ally & regional policemen (Milton-Edwards, p. 240)

  42. These policies were required for; • Eliminating competitors in the region to assure US indisputable supremacy • Until 1990 to form a massive regional alliance directed against the Soviet Union and its local allies • Determination to resort to any means, including military to satify these goals.This was what we saw in the 1990-91 Gulf War.

  43. Some cases from Cold War era • 1953 Overthrown of Muhammed Musaddıq rule in Iran (through a CIA secret operation) • 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine: It was a part of the American policy of containing Soviet influence in the Middle East and securing American interests in the area. The willingness to employ American forces at the request of states in the region in the instance of armed aggression from other states became associated by this doctrine.

  44. Cases: • No need to mention role of US during the Suez Crisis of 1956 – 57. • Another Cold War in the region: Egypt, Iraq & Yemen vs Saudi Arabia, Jordan & Morocco • 1978 – 79 Camp David Accords: Between Israel & Egypt under the sponsorship of US President Jimmy Carter

  45. The US policies towards the ME • In the Post-Cold War Era; US policy towards the Middle East has been centered on the idea of “hegemonic re-building” in the region with the pursuit of being as a problem. • For such precise purpose; the US President George Bush initiated Middle East Peace Conference in Madrid in 1991. • With the joining of PLO-Jordanian joint delegation, Syria and Israel, the peace talks began. The outcome was Gaza-Jericho agreement an DoP – Declaration of Priniples

  46. Post - September 11 Attacks • 2002 Bush Doctine which articulates the idea of failed states and Axis of Evil (Şer Ekseni) • US Global Strategy would be manifest in three priorities during this period; • 1. The US would lead the world in defending the peace against global terror and against aggressive regimes seeking weapons of mass detsruction. • 2. A commitment to peace through diplomacy • 3. US would extend “the peace by working to extend the benefits of liberty ... As broadly as possible”.

  47. Middle East Peace Process; • Please check the text that I will distribute in the clasroom!

  48. Euro-Mediterranean Partnership • The EU launched the Union for the Mediterranean in July 2008 to forge closer ties with the Middle East and with its North African neighbours. • Bringing together the 27 EU members and 16 other countries as diverse as Israel, Turkey and Syria, the new forum covers nearly 800m people. • It will undertake joint projects to revitalise the Mediterranean, such as cleaning up pollution, renovating ports, improving shipping and developing solar energy. The Arab League and the Palestinian Authority will have representation.

  49. Barcelona Process (1995) • The Barcelona Process was launched in November 1995 by the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the then, 15 EU members and 14 Mediterranean partners, as the framework to manage both bilateral and regional relations. • Guided by the agreements of the Barcelona Declaration, it formed the basis of the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership which has expanded and evolved into the Union for the Mediterranean.

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