Chapter 5 Social Cognition

1. Chapter 5 Social Cognition This is an overview of the topics of the chapter. Before beginning the chapter there is a slide based on the chapter introduction that can be used to stimulate classroom discussion.This is an overview of the topics of the chapter. Before beginning the chapter there is a slide based on the chapter introduction that can be used to stimulate classroom discussion.

2. What is Social Cognition? The processes by which information about people is processed and stored Thinking about people Humans think about people more than anything else. People first and Inner processes serve interpersonal functions represent two of the broad themes of the text (See Chapter 2)People first and Inner processes serve interpersonal functions represent two of the broad themes of the text (See Chapter 2)

3. Why Don�t We Think Some Times? Cognitive Miser Reluctance to do much extra thinking We conserve our thinking We use shortcuts Conscious thinking requires a lot of effort We have limited thinking capacity. STM = 7+/-2 items

4. Automatic versus Controlled Processes Automatic processes occur outside of conscious awareness and with little effort categorization of objects and people is an example Controlled processes are deliberate, intentional, and effortful mindfully determining the causes of a person�s behavior is an example

5. Elements of Automatic Thinking Intention � not guided by intention Control � not subject to deliberate control Effort � no effort required Efficiency � highly efficient Teaching Tip: An easy demonstration to illustrate the difference between automatic and controlled thinking is to ask students first to say the numbers from one to ten as quickly as possible and then to say them in alphabetical order (eight, five, four,�)Teaching Tip: An easy demonstration to illustrate the difference between automatic and controlled thinking is to ask students first to say the numbers from one to ten as quickly as possible and then to say them in alphabetical order (eight, five, four,�)

7. Automatic Processing Relies on Knowledge Structures Organized pieces of information Example Semantic Network

8. Other Knowledge Structures Schemas are mental representations of objects or categories of objects Aid in the categorization of events Aid in the predictability of events Influence our interpretation of events Scripts Schemas about certain events

9. Functions of Schemas

10. Priming and Framing Priming - activating a concept in the mind Influences subsequent thinking May trigger automatic processes Framing � presentation as positive or negative Discussion Tip: Ask students to generate examples of framing. For example, ground beef can be described as 90% lean or 10% fat. How do these frames affect people�s thinking about a product, person or issue?Discussion Tip: Ask students to generate examples of framing. For example, ground beef can be described as 90% lean or 10% fat. How do these frames affect people�s thinking about a product, person or issue?

11. Framing If you had the choice, would you chose 1) A situation in which 200 people will be saved (a 1/3 chance 600 people will be saved and a 2/3 chance nobody will be saved). 2) A situation where 400 people will die (a 2/3 chance 600 people will die and a 1/3 chance nobody will die). Discussion Tip: Ask students to generate examples of framing. For example, ground beef can be described as 90% lean or 10% fat. How do these frames affect people�s thinking about a product, person or issue?Discussion Tip: Ask students to generate examples of framing. For example, ground beef can be described as 90% lean or 10% fat. How do these frames affect people�s thinking about a product, person or issue?

12. Framing Should advertisers say the ground beef is 90% lean or 10% fat Discussion Tip: Ask students to generate examples of framing. For example, ground beef can be described as 90% lean or 10% fat. How do these frames affect people�s thinking about a product, person or issue?Discussion Tip: Ask students to generate examples of framing. For example, ground beef can be described as 90% lean or 10% fat. How do these frames affect people�s thinking about a product, person or issue?

13. Thought Suppression Two processes to suppress thought Automatic � checks for incoming information related to unwanted thought Controlled � redirects attention away from unwanted thought Relax conscious control and mind is flooded with cues from the automatic system Trying to suppress thoughts tend to make those thought more prevalent. Teaching Tip: To reproduce the effect described in though suppression and ironic processes, direct students to spend the next minute thinking about anything else but white bears. Discussion Tip: Ask students to consider how thought suppressions and ironic processes could pose a problem for dieters or recovering addicts. What solution would they suggest to such groups?Teaching Tip: To reproduce the effect described in though suppression and ironic processes, direct students to spend the next minute thinking about anything else but white bears. Discussion Tip: Ask students to consider how thought suppressions and ironic processes could pose a problem for dieters or recovering addicts. What solution would they suggest to such groups?

14. Attributions Causal explanations; inferences we make about events or behaviors. �Intuitive scientists� seek explanations in a systematic, orderly way much like a trained scientist, laypeople gather evidence, weigh possibilities, form hypotheses, to understand others Teaching Tip: Suggest various scenarios and ask students to describe an internal and an external attribution for each. Examples: being rejected when asking another on a date, another�s bad driving, someone arrive late to class. Teaching Tip: Suggest various scenarios and ask students to describe an internal and an external attribution for each. Examples: being rejected when asking another on a date, another�s bad driving, someone arrive late to class.

15. Attributions Three dimensions Internal / External Stable / Unstable Global / Specific Teaching Tip: Ask students to consider their performance on a recent exam or paper. Did those who were happy with their grade attribute the grade to an internal cause? Did those who were not happy with their grade attribute it to an external cause?Teaching Tip: Ask students to consider their performance on a recent exam or paper. Did those who were happy with their grade attribute the grade to an internal cause? Did those who were not happy with their grade attribute it to an external cause?

16. Attributions: Explaining Success and Failure Two dimensions Internal Stable - Ability Internal Unstable � Effort External Stable � Difficulty of task External Unstable � Luck Self-serving bias Teaching Tip: Ask students to consider their performance on a recent exam or paper. Did those who were happy with their grade attribute the grade to an internal cause? Did those who were not happy with their grade attribute it to an external cause?Teaching Tip: Ask students to consider their performance on a recent exam or paper. Did those who were happy with their grade attribute the grade to an internal cause? Did those who were not happy with their grade attribute it to an external cause?

17. Actor/Observer Bias External � Internal Attribution Actor (situation � external) Observer (actor � internal) Fundamental Attribution Error Ultimate Attribution Error Behavior freely chosen is more informative about a person (Jones & Harris, 1967) Discussion Tip: During the championship match of the 1006 World Cup, France�s Zidane was ejected from the game after headbutting Italy�s Materazzi who later admitted having insulted Zidane�s sister. How might the actor/observer bias have played a role in this incident?Discussion Tip: During the championship match of the 1006 World Cup, France�s Zidane was ejected from the game after headbutting Italy�s Materazzi who later admitted having insulted Zidane�s sister. How might the actor/observer bias have played a role in this incident?

18. Fundamental Attribution Error Four possible explanations Behavior is more noticeable than situational factors Insignificant weight is assigned to situational factors People are cognitive misers Richer trait-like language to explain behavior

19. Attribution Cube Covariation Principle Consensus Consistency Distinctiveness Teaching Tip: Many teachers are relatively shy in everyday interactions but appear energetic and outgoing in the classroom. Try asking students to rate you on a �shyness� scale from 1 (very shy) to 10. Student estimate average 8.5 for the textbook author, although his self-rating is 3. This discrepancy can lead to a great discussion of the fundamental attribution error. Teaching Tip: Many teachers are relatively shy in everyday interactions but appear energetic and outgoing in the classroom. Try asking students to rate you on a �shyness� scale from 1 (very shy) to 10. Student estimate average 8.5 for the textbook author, although his self-rating is 3. This discrepancy can lead to a great discussion of the fundamental attribution error.

20. Attribution Cube and Excuses Excuses Raise consensus � it happens to everyone Lower consistency � it doesn�t usually happen to me Raise distinctiveness � it doesn�t usually happen in other situations Teaching Tip: Let students practice in class with the attribution cube. Possible examples to consider: someone tells you a movie is good; you see someone driving erratically. Then have them produce their own attribution cube for a situation of their choosing.Teaching Tip: Let students practice in class with the attribution cube. Possible examples to consider: someone tells you a movie is good; you see someone driving erratically. Then have them produce their own attribution cube for a situation of their choosing.

21. Heuristics Representativeness Heuristic Judge likelihood by the extent it resembles the typical case Availability Heuristic Judge likelihood by ease with which relevant instances come to mind ESP beliefs Technology Tip: If students have difficulty with the representativeness heuristic, direct them to the online tutorial �The WWW Cognitive Psychology Tutor.� (Inductive reasoning: Drawing faulty conclusions http://teach.psy.uga.edu/CogPsychTutor/inductiv/conclus/default.htm)Technology Tip: If students have difficulty with the representativeness heuristic, direct them to the online tutorial �The WWW Cognitive Psychology Tutor.� (Inductive reasoning: Drawing faulty conclusions http://teach.psy.uga.edu/CogPsychTutor/inductiv/conclus/default.htm)

22. Heuristics Simulation Heuristic Judge likelihood by ease with which you can imagine it Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic Judge likelihood by using a starting point and adjusting from that point Teaching Tip: In a 2005 Teaching of Psychology article, Shepperd and Koch demonstrate the importance of providing examples of heuristics leading to both good and bad decisions.Teaching Tip: In a 2005 Teaching of Psychology article, Shepperd and Koch demonstrate the importance of providing examples of heuristics leading to both good and bad decisions.

23. Cognitive Errors and Biases Information Overload Too much information, contradictions in information, irrelevant information Generally access two types of information Statistical information Case History Generally pay closer attention to case history

24. Cognitive Errors and Biases Confirmation Bias Tendency to notice and search for information that confirms one�s beliefs and ignore information that disconfirms it Conjunction Fallacy Tendency to see an event as more likely as it becomes more specific

25. Cognitive Errors and Biases Illusory Correlation Tendency to overestimate link between variables that are related only slightly or not at all Hamilton & Gifford (1976)

26. Cognitive Errors and Biases Base Rate Fallacy Tendency to ignore base rate information and be influenced by distinctive features of the case Gambler�s Fallacy Tendency to believe that a chance event is affected by previous events and will �even out�

27. Cognitive Errors and Biases False Consensus Effect Tendency to overestimate the number of other people who share one�s opinions False Uniqueness Effect Tendency to underestimate the number of other people who share one�s prized characteristics or abilities Teaching Tip: Try to reproduce the false consensus effect in class by asking a question likely to elicit mixed student reaction. First ask their own opinion; then ask them to estimate what percentage of classmates share their beliefs. False uniqueness effect is also known as the Lake Wobegon EffectTeaching Tip: Try to reproduce the false consensus effect in class by asking a question likely to elicit mixed student reaction. First ask their own opinion; then ask them to estimate what percentage of classmates share their beliefs. False uniqueness effect is also known as the Lake Wobegon Effect

28. Cognitive Errors and Biases Statistical Regression Statistical tendency for extremes to be followed by less extreme or those closer to average Illusion of Control A false belief that one can influence events Discussion Tip: Ask students to consider how the illusion of control can be dangerous for gamblers. Also, how might the illusion of control be adaptive for the general population?Discussion Tip: Ask students to consider how the illusion of control can be dangerous for gamblers. Also, how might the illusion of control be adaptive for the general population?

29. Is Bad Stronger Than Good?Good News and Bad News People think more about bad things than good ones Thinking is guided by search for explanations More concerned with explaining bad events than good events Bad news attracts more attention

30. Cognitive Errors and Biases Magical Thinking Assumptions that don�t hold up to logical scrutiny Touching objects pass on properties to each other (contamination) Resemblance to something shares basic properties (contamination) Thoughts can influence physical world

31. Counterfactual Thinking Imagining alternatives to past or present factual events or circumstances First instinct fallacy Upward counterfactuals � positive outcome Help make future situations better Downward counterfactuals � negative outcome Comfort it could have been worse First instinct fallacy � false belief that it is better not to change one�s first answer on a test even if one starts to think a different answer is correct. Teaching Tip: Draw students� attention to this fallacy, as it represents another example of scientific social psychological research exposing erroneous �commonsense� assumptions.First instinct fallacy � false belief that it is better not to change one�s first answer on a test even if one starts to think a different answer is correct. Teaching Tip: Draw students� attention to this fallacy, as it represents another example of scientific social psychological research exposing erroneous �commonsense� assumptions.

32. Are People Really Idiots? We make predictable errors Cognitive misers Heuristics are short cuts How serious are the errors On trivial events � use heuristics and automatic processing On important events � use conscious processing and make better decisions

33. Reducing Cognitive Errors Debiasing Consider multiple alternative Rely less on memory Use explicit decision rules Search for disconfirmatory information Use meta-cognition Teaching Tip: To check students� understanding, ask them to write a specific plan for improving decision making in a particular setting, such as buying a car, choosing a major, or accepting a job.Teaching Tip: To check students� understanding, ask them to write a specific plan for improving decision making in a particular setting, such as buying a car, choosing a major, or accepting a job.

34. What Makes Us Human? Human thought uses and combines symbols Language allows for exploration of linkages of meaning Conscious mind is uniquely human Complex patterns of thought

35. What Makes Us Human? Only humans engage in counterfactual thinking Human thought creates unique errors and unique capabilities to find the truth