Second Language Research Methodology and Design Alison Mackey and Susan M. Gass

Second Language Research Methodology and Design Alison Mackey and Susan M. Gass CHAPTER 6 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH  ZAHRA FARAJNEZHAD

6.1. Definition of Qualitative research  Qualitative research is based on descriptive data that does not make (regular) use of statistical procedures.  Qualitative research is empirical research where the data are not in the form of numbers. (Punch, 1998: 4)  Qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them.

6.1. Definition of Qualitative research  Qualitative research is associated with the subjective quality of a thing or phenomenon, such as feel, taste, expertise, image, leadership, reputation.  Qualitative aspects are abstract; they either do not require measurement or cannot be measured. Knowledge of these aspects is gained through observation understanding of the underlying thing or phenomenon. combined with interpretative

Characteristics of Qualitative Research  Rich description: It involves the provision of careful and detailed descriptions as opposed to the quantification of data through measurements, frequencies, scores, and ratings.  Research questions: It tends to be general and open ended, and hypotheses may be generated as an outcome of qualitative research. Brown (2003): "One of the great strengths often cited for qualitative research is its potential for forming new hypotheses.“  Few participants: It tends to work more intensively with fewer participants, and are less concerned about issues of generalizability

Characteristics of Qualitative Research Natural and holistic representation: It aims to study individuals and events in their natural settings. Qualitative researchers tend to be more interested in presenting a natural and holistic picture of the phenomena being studied. This picture includes both the broader sociocultural context (e.g., the ideological orientations of the speech community as a whole) as well as micro-level phenomena (e.g., interaction within the classroom). .

Characteristics of Qualitative Research  Ernie perspectives: It aims to interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people attach to them, to adopt an emic perspective _ internal elements and their functioning _, or the use of categories that are meaningful to members of the speech community under study. It might be inappropriate in some cultures for students to laugh at, question, or to make eye contact with their teachers. A qualitative researchers would aim to take this into account when investigating student affect in the classroom. Emic perspectives can be distinguished from the use of etic (or outsiders') categories and frameworks to interpret behavior.

Characteristics of Qualitative Research  Cyclical and open-ended processes: Qualitative research is often process- oriented, or open ended. It usually begins with a carefully defined research question that guides the process of data collection and analysis. Qualitative researchers tend to approach the research context with the purpose of observing whatever may be present there, and letting further questions emerge from the context.

Characteristics of Qualitative Research  Possible ideological orientations: Qualitative researchers may consciously take ideological positions. This sort of research is sometimes described as 'critical,' meaning that the research may have particular social or political goals. Scollon (2001) argued that critical discourse analysis, a form of qualitative research, is "a program of social analysis that critically analyzes discourse—that is to say language in use—as a means of addressing social change“.

Table 6.1, from Chaudron (2000), provides a useful overview of the distinctions between qualitative and quantitative approaches. these two research types are by no means as dichotomous as they sometimes appear to be. Sullivan and Pratt (1996) used both quantitative and qualitative methodologies to investigate the effects of computer technology on ESL student writers. They used quantitative approaches to compare student essays in two types of writing environments (classes using computer technology and traditional oral classrooms); qualitative analyses were then used to compare the types and patterns of discourse in those environments.

TABLE TABLE 6.1 6.1 and Quantitative Quantitative Approaches Distinctions Between Distinctions Between Qualitative Qualitativeand Approaches Qualitative Methods (Ethnography) Quantitative Methods Observation & Collection of Data In research "instruments," rather "processes" that are supposedly free of bias and prior assumptions: Free, prolonged observation, at times "participant observation," open-ended interviews, "triangulation" information and "informant checking," access to existing documents. data collection, doesn't ethnographic usually use The observations usually are based on an observation scheme or descriptive categories that have been developed prior to the research. Moreover, these observations are made in a planned way, according to an order determined by the design of the research, and with categories that cannot be changed once the research is underway. of interpretation,

Quantitative Methods Qualitative Methods (Ethnography) Nature of Data Data tend to be limited by the type of observation that is planned according to the method of observation; depending on the design and the effects of a treatment, the data usually indicate stability or variability and development tin events, attitudes, abilities, skills, knowledge, performance or production, etc., with respect to a language and its use. Ethnographic research considers those data which arise from the natural events in the research context. The topics of greatest interest are human behaviors and sociocultural patterns and norms which underlie the behaviors. Data are viewed in a "holistic" fashion, without attempting to separate them into their components. Use and Development of Theory The researcher does not want to verify or prove theories; The observation without bias nor narrow perspectives. The researcher’s objectivity will develop a "grounded" theory which helps to relate the observations to one another and to larger contexts, or she/he will attempt to revise and perfect the conceptual framework. In the most form of qualitative research causal explanations are only a better "understanding" of the phenomenon. The researcher constructs a design to prove some aspect of a theoretical framework and the results tend to either confirm or disconfirm the hypotheses. The researcher's subjectivity can influence interpretations, in order not to generalize beyond the research context, the design, which includes the means of sampling the subjects, should control the limits of conclusions to be drawn.

6.2. GATHERING QUALITATIVE DATA Some of the most commonly used qualitative data collection methods, including: Ethnographies Interviews Diaries/journals Case studies Observational techniques

6.2. GATHERING QUALITATIVE DATA  Brown (2003) categorized interviews and questionnaires as part of survey- based research, a distinct category from qualitative and quantitative research, which he referred to as "interpretive and statistical methods.“

6.2.1. Ethnographies o Aims "to describe and interpret the cultural behavior, including communicative behavior, of a group" (Johnson, 1992) as well as "to give an epically oriented description of the cultural practices of individuals" (Ramanathan & Atkinson, 1999). o This focuses on group behavior and the cultural patterns underlying that behavior. o Generally focuses on the group rather than on the individual, stresses the importance of situating the study within the larger sociocultural context, and strives to present an emic perspective of the phenomena under investigation.

6.2.1. Ethnographies o The goal: Emic, detailed, holistic, and situated in context with a focus on exploring how complex factors interact. o Ethnographies can make use of methods designed to tap perspectives and they often involve or are overlapped with the use of observations, interviews, diaries, and other means of data collection. into participants'

6.2.1.1. Advantages oThe research questions can be dynamic, subject to constant revision, and refined as the research continues to uncover new knowledge. oEthnographic approaches are particularly valuable when not enough is known about the context or situation to establish narrowly defined questions or develop formal hypotheses. oEthnographies typically employ multiple methods for gathering data, such as participant observations and open-ended interviews as well as written products, and provides a holistic, culturally grounded, and emic perspective of the phenomena under investigation.

6.2.1.2. Caveats  Intensive research over an extended period of time.  The researcher's participation may change the nature of the event  It requires a commitment to long-term data collection, detailed and continuous record keeping, and repeated and careful analysis of data obtained from multiple sources.  The act of transcribing the events that were observed may inevitably entail a misrepresentation of them.  Difficult to generalize the findings of ethnographic research to other problems or settings.  It may creates potential conflicts between the researcher's roles as an observer and a participant.  Focus on describing a culture is problematic, because of both outside influences and personal idiosyncrasy.

6.2.2. Case Studies o It aims to provide a holistic description of language learning or use within a specific population and setting. o Usually, associated with a longitudinal approach_ observations of the phenomena under investigation at periodic intervals for an extended period of time_. o Used in the social sciences and have been found in practice-oriented fields (such as education, management, public administration, and social work). o It is used for explaining an organization or an entity.

6.2.2.1. Advantages  It allows the researcher to focus on the individual in a way that is rarely possible in group research.  It can be conducted with more than one individual learner or more than one existing group of learners for the purpose of comparing and contrasting their behaviors within their particular context.  It has the potential for rich contextualization that can shed light on the complexities of the second language learning process.

6.2.2.2. Caveats  Any generalizations from the individual or small group (or classroom) to the larger population of second language learners must be made tentatively and with extreme caution.  Case studies may provide valuable insights into certain aspects of second language learning, but single case studies are not easily generalizable.  From a single case study, it may be difficult to recognize idiosyncrasies, with the potential that they are misinterpreted as typical language learning behavior.

6.2.3. Interviews  Often associated with survey-based research, as well as being a technique used by many qualitative researchers.  Structured interviews resemble verbal questionnaires and compare answers from different participants. The researcher uses a written list of questions as a guide, while still having the freedom to digress and probe for more information.  Unstructured interviews, no list of questions is used. Instead, interviewers develop and adapt their own questions, helping respondents to open up and express themselves in their own terms and at their own speed.

6.2.3. Interviews  Unstructured interviews are more similar to natural conversations, and the outcomes are not limited by the researcher's predetermined ideas about the area of interest.  Focus-group sessions are related to such interviews, and usually involve several participants in a group discussion, often with a facilitator whose goal it is to keep the group discussion targeted on specific topics, again often using a stimulus for discussion, such as a videotape or previously elicited data.

6.2.3.1. Advantages  Investigating phenomena that are not directly observable, such as learners' self- reported perceptions or attitudes.  Interviews are interactive, researchers can elicit additional data if initial answers are vague, incomplete, off-topic, or not specific enough.  ElicitING data from learners who are not comfortable in other modes.  Depending on the research question and the resources available, interviews can be conducted in the learner's L1, thus removing concerns about the proficiency of the learner impacting the quality and quantity of the data provided.

6.2.3.2. Caveats  Researchers must take note of the potential drawbacks of interviews.  It may not be easy for novice researchers to conduct unstructured interviews without practice and training in drawing participants out, encouraging them to express themselves, and gathering valuable data on the area of interest.  The danger of the so-called halo effect: when interviewees pick up cues from the researcher related to what they think the researcher wants them to say, thus potentially influencing their responses_.  Cross-cultural pragmatic failure: Some questions may be considered inappropriate in particular cultures, and because of the different connotations words carry in different linguistic and cultural contexts, miscommunications may arise.

6.2.4. Observations • Observation usually refers to "methods of generating data which involve the researcher immersing [him/herself] in a research setting, and systematically observing dimensions of that setting, interactions, relationships, actions, events, and so on, within it" (Mason ,1996). • The data are often collected through some combination of field notes (which can involve detailed impressions of the researcher's intuitions, and even questions as they emerge) and audio or visual recordings (which allow the researcher to analyze language use in greater depth and to involve outside researchers in the consideration of the data).

6.2.4. Observations In highly structured observations, the researcher often utilizes a detailed checklist or rating scale. In a complex L2 environment such as the language school, workplace, or community, a structured observation can facilitate the recording of details such as when, where, and how often certain types of phenomena occur, allowing the researcher to compare behaviors across research contexts in a principled manner. In less structured observations, the researcher may rely on field notes for detailed descriptions of the phenomena being observed, or transcripts of tapes of those events.

6.2.4.1. Advantages  Provide the researcher with the opportunity to collect large amounts of rich data on the participants' behavior and actions within a particular context.  Over time and repeated observations, the researcher can gain a deeper and more multilayered understanding of the participants and their context.

6.2.4.2. Caveats  Observations typically do not allow the researcher access to the participants motivation for their behaviors and actions.  “Observer's Paradox“: the presence of an observer can influence the linguistic behavior of those being observed. There is also some possibility of the Hawthorne effect, which may occur when learners perform better due to positive feelings at being included in a study. If learners realize that they are under observation, their performances might improve because of the fact of that observation.

6.2.4.2. Caveats  Less obtrusive option is participant observation, by which researchers are members of the group they are observing. They play a dual role of observing while fully participating in activities with other group members. Although participant observation can limit the effects of the observer's paradox, it can also be difficult to both observe and participate,  Participant observation is generally most practical in adult learning contexts where the researcher can easily blend in—for example, in conversation or language exchange clubs. Ethical issues related to participant observations also need to be considered.

6.2.5. Diaries/Journals o Learners' reports about their internal processes and thoughts can be elicited by carefully modifying the questions that researchers choose to ask, verbal protocols and other introspective methods are often used to gather data for qualitative studies. o Diaries, referred to as L2 journals or learner autobiographies, can also be used to allow learners, language professionals (and teachers, on classroom research) to write about their language learning experiences without the limitations imposed by specific questions.

6.2.5. Diaries/Journals • Unstructured • Structured participants report on everyday activities participants report on everyday activities elicits general themes answers more specific questions • Usability test • Problem report participants complete specific tasks and report on results participants report on everyday activities structured comparison of task performance identifies bugs/experience problems

6.2.5.1. Advantages • Learners are able to record their impressions or perceptions about learning, unconstrained by predetermined areas of interest. (This form of data collection can thus yield insights into the language learning process that may be inaccessible from the researcher's perspective alone.) • In studies in which researchers provide a structure for the diarists to follow (e.g., certain topics to address and guidelines for the content), the researchers are still able to access the phenomena under investigation from a viewpoint other than their own. • Diary entries can be completed according to the participants' own schedules, this approach to data collection allows for greater flexibility than, for example, observations and interviews, which must be scheduled to fit the time limitations of multiple individuals.

6.2.5.2. Caveats  Keeping a diary requires a commitment on the part of the participants to frequently provide detailed accounts of their thoughts about language learning.  The diaries of second language researchers have provided interesting insights, they constitute a highly specialized population, and the insights from these studies cannot often be extended to other contexts.  Due to the lack of structure of diary entries, data analysis can become a complex affair, making it more difficult for researchers to find and validate patterns in the data.

6.3. Analyzing Qualitative Data In analyzing qualitative data, researchers often make use of cyclical data analysis. (cyclical research is the process by which researchers bring increasing focus to their topic of interest. ) Watson-Gegeo(1988,1997) divided cyclical data analysis into three distinct stages: • Comprehensive: All possible aspects of a chosen context are researched. • Topic oriented: In which the topic is clarified through preliminary analysis and focused data collection. • Hypothesis oriented: Hypotheses are generated based on data.

6.3. Analyzing Qualitative Data A similar approach  grounded theory. This involves developing theory based on, or grounded in, data that have been systematically gathered and analyzed. Grounded theory attempts to avoid placing preconceived notions on the data. It aims to examine data from multiple vantage points to help them arrive at a more complete picture of the phenomena under investigation. In inductive data analysis: the goal is generally for research findings to emerge from the frequent, dominant, or significant themes within the raw data, without imposing restraints as is the case with predetermined coding or analysis schemes. Inductive data analysis is determined by multiple examinations and interpretations of the data, with the categories induced from the data. The framework for analysis is often shaped by the assumptions and experiences of the individual researcher.

6.3.1. Credibility, Transferability, Confirmability, and Dependability  Credibility: Qualitative research can be based on the assumption of multiple, constructed realities, it may be more important for qualitative researchers to demonstrate that their findings are credible to their research population.  Transferability: The research context is seen as integral. The findings are rarely directly transferable from one context to another, the extent to which findings may be transferred depends on the similarity of the context.

Thick Description o The method of reporting known as "thick description”: refers to the process of using multiple perspectives to explain the insights gleaned from a study, and taking into account the actors' interpretations of their actions and the speakers' interpretations of their speech. o Davis (1995) distinguished three essential components of thick description: Particular description: Representative examples from the data. General description: Information about the patterns in the data. Interpretive commentary: Explanation of the phenomena researched and interpretation of the meaning of the findings with respect to previous research.

6.3.1. Credibility, Transferability, Confirmability, and Dependability Confirmability: Researchers are required to make available full details of the data on which they are basing their claims or interpretations. This is similar to the concept of replicability in quantitative research, with the point being that another researcher should be able to examine the data and confirm, modify, or reject the first researcher's interpretations. Dependability: Researchers aim to fully characterize the research context and the relationships among the participants. To enhance dependability, researchers may ask the participants themselves to review the patterns in the data. Recorded data can help to recreate the data collection context and make use of all interpretive cues in order to draw inferences and evaluate the dependability of the inferences that have been drawn.

6.3.2. Triangulation  Involves using multiple research techniques and multiple sources of data in order to explore the issues from all feasible perspectives. Using the technique of triangulation can aid in credibility, transferability confirmability and dependability.  Theoretical triangulation (using multiple perspectives to analyze the same set of data)  Investigator triangulation (using multiple observers or interviewers)  Methodological triangulation (using different measures or research methods to investigate a particular phenomenon)  It entails the use of multiple, independent methods of obtaining data in a single investigation in order to arrive at the same research findings.

6.3.2. Triangulation o The value of triangulation is that it reduces observer or interviewer bias and enhances the validity and reliability (accuracy) of the information (Johnson,1992).

6.3.3. The Role of Quantification in Qualitative Research  Quantification can play a role in both the generation of hypotheses and the verification of patterns; it can also be used later for the purpose of data reporting.  Quantification is used by many qualitative researchers, who commonly gather enough data to fill a book, and then pare down their data and findings to a length that conforms to journal publication requirements.  Quantification is valuable in that numerical descriptions can make it readily apparent both why researchers have drawn particular inferences and how well their theories reflect the data.

6.4. CONCLUSION  Key triangulation, and quantification. issues: credibility, transferability, confirmability, dependability,  When appropriate qualitative research methods are chosen to address a particular problem, and when the proper standards of empirical rigor are met through triangulation of research perspectives, consideration of emic perspectives, and cyclical data collection and analysis, qualitative research can reliably help us to gain a deeper understanding of the nature of second language learning.

Second Language Research Methodology and Design Alison Mackey and Susan M. Gass