English Essentials

1. English Essentials Chapter 1

2. Conventions ML #1Subjects and Verbs • Subject- the person, place, thing, or idea that the sentence is about. • Ask yourself, “Who or what is the sentence about?” • Example: People applauded. • Example: Gloria wrote the answers on the board. • It will always be a noun- person, place, thing, idea- or a pronoun- I, you, he, she, it, we, they- that can take the place of a noun.

3. Verbs • Verbs- many verbs express action; they tell what the subject is doing. • You can find an action verb by asking, “What does the subject do?” • People applauded. • Gloria wrote the answers on the board.

4. Linking Verbs and Helping Verbs • Some verbs do not show action; they are called linking verbs- is, are, was, were- join the subject to something that is said about the subject. • Gloria is a teacher. • Some verbs consist of more than one word- a helping verb plus the main verb • Gloria has written the answer on the board.

5. More Practice with Subjects and Verbs…and Prepositional phrases • A prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with a preposition (words like about, after, at, before, between, by, during, for, from, in, into, like, of, on, outside, over, through, to, toward, with, without) and ends with a noun. • Getting rid of the prepositional phrases can help you find the subject and verb. • Ex. The coffee from the leaking pot stained the carpet. • Ex.- One of my classmates fell asleep during class. Hint: If a word can complete the following sentence, then it is likely a preposition, and begins a prepositional phrase. The squirrel ran _____________ the trees. Keep in mind that not every preposition works here, but it’s still a decent reminder of what prepositions are.

6. Conventions ML#2- Irregular Verbs • Most verbs are regular. That is, they form their past tense and past participle by adding –ed or –d to the basic form: • Ask, asked, have asked • Raise, raised, have raised • Some English verbs are irregular. They do not form their past tense this way: • Become, became, has become • Break, broke, broken • Bring, brought, has brought

7. A Note on Helping Verbs • Many verbs consist of a main verb plus one or more helping verbs. Helping verbs are shown below. • Forms of be: be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been • Forms of have: have, has, had • Forms of do: do, does, did • Special verbs: can, could, may, might, must, ought (to), shall, should, will, would

8. A couple hints… • If your sentence does not have a helping verb, choose the past tense form. • I ate a bacon, lettuce, and tomato sandwich. • If the sentence does have a helping verb, choose the past participle. • I had eaten a bacon, lettuce, and tomato sandwich • Do the “Irregular Verb” exercises on www.townsendpress.net

9. Conventions ML #3 - Subject and Verb Agreement • The subject and verb should agree in number. Singular subjects have singular verbs, and plural subjects have plural verbs. • Ex. Our babysleeps more than ten hours a day. Some babiessleep even longer. • Sometimes the subject (noun) and the verb are separated by a prepositional phrase, so take the phrase out to see if the subject and verb agree. • Ex. A small bag of potato chips contains 440 calories. • Remove the prepositional phrase. • A small bagcontains 440 calories.

10. Subject Verb Agreement- Hints • Has,Is = singular verbs • Have, Are = plural verbs • Ex. The tomatoes in this salad are brown and mushy. • Ex. The tomato in this salad is brown and mushy. • Compound subjects are made up of two nouns connected by a joining word like –and-. These usually take a plural verb. • Ex. Fear and ignorancehave a lot to do with hatred. • Ex. Fearhas a lot to do with hatred.

11. Conventions ML # 4-Sentence Types • There are 3 basic kinds of sentences in English: 1. A simple sentence has only one subject-verb combination and expresses one complete thought. • Ex.- Our daughter cooked dinner tonight. 2. A compound sentence is made up of two or more complete thoughts, usually by using a comma and a joining word, we can combine two simple sentences. • Ex. Rose wants chili for dinner, but she forgot to buy beans. • Hint: Remember FANBOYS in the middle of a sentence should have a comma before them • For • And • Nor • But • Or • Yet • So

12. 3. Complex Sentences are made up of one complete thought and a thought that begins with a dependent word like -after, although, as, because, before, if, since, unless, when, where, where, and while. • Hint: a comma is placed after a dependent statement when it starts a sentence • Ex. Although I had a free ticket to the game, I was too tired to go.

13. Conventions ML # 4- Fragments (Part I) • To be a complete sentence, a group of words must contain a subject and a verb. It must also express a complete thought. If it lacks a subject, verb, or a complete thought, it is a fragment. • The most common type of fragment is the dependent-word fragment, which has a subject and a verb but not a complete thought. • Ex. Because Laura was tired. • Ex. Because Laura was tired, she took a nap. • Let’s Practice!

14. A Note on Dependent Words Examples of Dependent Words: after, although, as, because, before, if, since, unless, when, where, and while. • Hint: If a dependent clause starts a sentence, a comma is placed after a dependent clause Ex. Although I had a free ticket to the game, I was too tired to go.

15. Fragments (Part II) • In addition to dependent-word fragments, there are three other common types of fragments: • Fragments without a subject Ex. Joe lowered himself from the van into his wheelchair. And then rolled up the sidewalk ramp. You can fix such a fragment by adding it to the sentence that comes before it. Ex. Joe lowered himself from the van into his wheelchair, and then rolled up the sidewalk ramp.

16. -Ing and To Fragments 2. When –ing appears at or near the beginning of a word group, a fragment may result • Ex.- Hoping to furnish their new home cheaply. The newlyweds go to garage sales. 3. A fragment may also result when a word group begins with to followed by a verb. • Ex.- Leo jogged through the park. To clear his mind before the midterm. Comma Hint: When an –ing or to word group starts a sentence, follow it with a comma.

17. Conventions ML # 5-Run-Ons and Comma Splices I • A run-on is made up of two complete thoughts that are incorrectly run together without a connection. • Ex. Dolphins have killed sharks they never attack humans. • A comma splice is made up of two complete thoughts that are incorrectly joined (or spliced) together with only a comma. • Ex. Dolphins have killed sharks, they never attack humans.

18. How to Correct Run-Ons and Comma Splices • Method 1- Use a period and a capital letter. • Run-on: The computer hummed loudly the sound was annoying. • Comma Splice: The computer hummed loudly, the sound was annoying. • Correct.- The computer hummed loudly. The sound was annoying.

19. Method 2- Use a comma and a joining word (FANBOYS- For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So) Hint: the comma comes BEFORE the FANBOYS, and can be called coordinating conjunctions or joining words) • Run-on: Dolphins have killed sharks they never attack humans. • Comma splice: Dolphins have killed sharks, they never attack humans. • Correct- Dolphins have killed sharks, but they never attack humans.

20. Run- Ons and Comma Splices (Part II) • Another way to fix a run-on or comma splice is to add a dependent word to one of the complete thoughts. • The sentence will then include one thought that depends upon the remaining complete thought for its full meaning. • Run-on: Dolphins have killed sharks they never attack humans. • Comma splice: Dolphins have killed sharks, they never attack humans. • Correct: Although dolphins have killed sharks, they never kill humans. • Comma Hint: Notice again that when a dependent clause starts a sentence, a comma must follow the clause.

21. Conventions ML # 6- The Comma- The 4 Main Uses • To separate three or more items in a series. Example: The school cafeteria has learned not to serve broccoli, spinach, or Brussels sprouts (except on the ACT, where you would omit a comma before FANBOYS at the end of a list) • To separate introductory material from the rest of the sentence. Example: After taking a hot shower, Vince fell asleep on the sofa. • To join two complete thoughts connected by FANBOYS. Example: Lee broke her leg in the accident, and her car was badly damaged. • Using two commas to set apart extra information in the middle of a sentence (parenthetical phrases/ appositives) Example: Mike, who lives in Michigan, loves the tigers.

22. ACT Hints • In order to use a comma, only one side of the sentence should be able to stand alone. (Except for FANBOYS) • Correct: Because he worked so hard, Mike was able to make the basketball team. • Incorrect: The class is over, now I can go home. • Almost always, whenever three answer choices which all say the same thing have commas, and the fourth answer choice does not have a comma, the answer choice without the comma is correct. – Only true for the ACT test • Don’t use a comma just because a sentence contains FANBOYS, only use it when the FANBOYS come between two complete thoughts. • Comma: Lee broke her leg in the accident, and her car was damaged. • No Comma: Lee broke her leg in the accident and badly damaged her car.

23. Conventions ML # 7- The Two Main Uses of the Apostrophe • The apostrophe takes the place of one or more missing letters in a contraction. (A contraction is a word formed by combining two or more words, leaving some of the letters out.) • I am sleepy – I’m sleepy. • Hank did not know the answer– Hank didn’t know the answer. • They + would = They’d • It + is = it’s • Does + not = doesn’t • Do + not = don’t • She + will = she’ll • He + is = he’s • We + have = we’ve • Could + not = couldn’t • Will + not = won’t

24. The apostrophe shows that something belongs to someone or something. (This is called possession.) • The fin of the shark– The shark’s fin • The fins of the sharks– the sharks’ fins (To show plural possession, make the noun plural first. Then immediately use the apostrophe. ) • Examples: two boys' hats, two women's hats, two actresses' hats, two children's hats, the Changs' house • NOTE: Never use an apostrophe with possessive pronouns: his, hers, its, theirs, ours, yours, whose. They already show possession so they do not require an apostrophe.  • Examples: Correct: This book is hers, not yours.   • Incorrect: Sincerely your's.

25. Conventions ML # 8- Basics about the Quotation Marks • Use quotation marks to set off all exact words of a speaker or writer. • Example: The little girl’s mother said, “It wasn’t nice to fill up the sugar bowl with salt.” –Where does the comma go? • Example: “I’m afraid,” the mechanic muttered to Fred, “that your car is in big trouble.”- Where does the period go? • Example: “Our math teacher is unfair,” whined Wanda. “He assigns two hours of homework for each class. Does he think we have nothing else to do?” • Example: “We cannot solve a problem by hoping someone else will solve it for us,” wrote psychiatrist M. Scott Peck.

26. More Quotation Mark Notes • Quoted material is usually set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma. When the comma comes at the end of quoted material, it is included inside the quotation marks. The same is true for a period, exclamation point, or question mark that ends quoted materials. • Incorrect- “Aren’t you ready yet”? Dad yelled. “Hurry up, or we’re leaving without you”! • Correct- “Aren’t you ready yet?” Dad yelled. “Hurry up, or we’re leaving without you!” • A quoted sentence usually begins with a capital letter, even when it is preceded by other words. • Incorrect- The diner asked suspiciously, “is this fish fresh?” • Correct- The diner asked suspiciously, “Is this fish fresh?”

27. Other Uses of Quotation Marks • Always put semicolons and colons outside quotation marks • Ex- He said, “Trials are like games”; I’m not so sure I agree. • Use quotation marks to enclose slang words, unusual expressions, technical terms, and definitions of words • Example: The gangster hired a “mouthpiece” to represent him in court. • Italicize an unfamiliar foreign word or a word referred to as a word. • Example: Her concern with bella figura made her look down on those who neglected their appearance. • Example: The words you and ewe are homophones. • Practice Exercise: pg. 295- Do the evens- 2-10

28. Use Quotations for short works like… • Short Story- “All Summer in a Day” by Ray Bradbury • Chapters- Chapter 4, “The Prosecution Rests” • Articles-“Ants and Plants” in National Geographic • Essays- “Civil Disobedience” by Thoreau • Television Episodes- The Simpsons’ “Treehouse of Terror” • Short Poems- “I, Too” by Langston Hughes • Songs- “The Climb” by Miley Cyrus

29. Use Italics (when typing) or underline (when handwriting) for longer pieces like… • Books- The Scarlet Letter • Newspaper- The Detroit Free Press • Magazine- Rolling Stone • Work of Art-Starry Night • Television Series-Glee • Movie- Star Wars • Play- Romeo and Juliet • Long Poem-The Odyssey • Long Musical/ Artistic Work-Swan Lake • Vehicle (ship, train, aircraft, spacecraft)-The Edmund Fitzgerald

30. Convention ML #9- Homonyms • Homonyms- two or more words that have the same sound but different spellings and meanings. • The following four cause the most trouble: • Its (possessive) it’s (contraction of it is) • Their (possessive) there (in or to that place) they’re (contraction of they are) • To (in order to) too (overly, extremely, also) two (the number) • Your (possessive) you’re (contraction of you are)

31. Other common homonyms… • Brake (slow or stop) break (to cause to come apart • Hear (take in by ear) here (in this place) • Hole (an empty spot) whole (complete) • Know (to understand) no (to opposite of yes) • Right (correct) write (to form letters and words) • Whose (belonging to whom) who’s (contraction of who is)

32. Past vs. Passed • Past – relates to location • The word past locates something in time, and sometimes in space. It can be used as an adjective, noun, adverb, or preposition. • “The days for mourning are now past.” (adjective) • “In the past, standards were higher.” (noun) • “My house is the one just past the turn.” (preposition) • Passed – a verb in the past tense • “The weeks passed quickly.” (hint: check your work. If it’s not being used as a verb, you should be using past) • “My grandmother passed away.”

33. Six More Homonyms • Knew (past tense of know) new (not old) • Peace (absence of war; quiet) piece (part of something) • Plain (not fancy; obvious; field) plane (airplane; describing a flat surface) • Threw (past tense of throw) through (into and out of; finished) • Wear (to have on- clothing) where (in what place) • Weather (outside conditions) whether (if)

34. ML # 10- Capital Letters • Six main uses of capital letters • First word in a sentence or direct quotation • The ice-cream man said, “Try a frozen banana bar” • The word “I” and people’s names • Names of specific places, institutions, and languages • Janice, who lives in Boston and works as a lab technician at Newton Hospital, grew up speaking Spanish and English. • Product names- capitalize the brand name of the product, but not the kind of product it is • Every morning I have Tropicana orange juice and Total cereal with milk • Calendar items- capitalize the days of the week, months, and holidays • Titles- capitalize books, TV or stage shows, songs, magazines, articles, poems, etc. • Note: The words the, of a , an, and, and other little, unstressed words are not capitalized when they appear in the middle of a title. Example: “The Portrayal of Women in Rap Music Videos.”

35. ML #10 Continued- Other Capitalization Do’s and Don’ts • DO-Capitalize family names used before a proper noun or used in place of a name • When Grandma drove to her kickboxing class, she saw Uncle Edward. • DON’T- capitalize family names preceded by articles (a, an, the) or possessive words. • After my father moved here, he called his cousin. • DO- Capitalize specific people and cultures and religious terms (religions and followers, sacred days, sacred writings, specific deities) • Many Afghani people practice Islam and study the Koran. • DON’T- capitalize the words god and goddess when they refer to the deities of ancient mythology. • The Olympic athletes honored Nike, the Greek goddess of victory.

36. Yeah, there’s still more to learn about Capitalization • DO- capitalize the names of specific places and regions • Take Pennsylvania Avenue to Highway 101, and that should lead you to Laurel Lake. • DO- capitalize words that refer to sections of the country. • The South has produced many great writers. • DON’T- capitalize words that refer to compass directions/ • These days, fewer birds head south for the winter. • DO- capitalize historical events and historical periods • The Reign of Terror did not take place during the Jurassic Period. • DON’T – capitalize the names of seasons: spring, summer, winter, autumn • DO- capitalize the names of school subjects when they refer to specific courses • My most difficult class is Physics 101. • DON’T- capitalize the words freshmen, sophomore, junior, or senior except when they are part of a proper noun. • The sophomores are not usually invited to the Junior Prom.

37. ML #11- Parallelism • Two or more equal ideas should be expressed in parallel, or matching form. Parallelism will help your words flow smoothly and clearly. • Not parallel: The new restaurant has fresh food, reasonable prices, and service that is fast. • Parallel: The new restaurant has fresh food, reasonable prices, and fast service.

38. More Parallelism • The children were arguing in the lobby, talked during the movie, and complained on the ride home. • The children were arguing in the lobby, talking during the movie, and complaining on the ride home. • The children argued in the lobby, talked during the movie, and complained on the ride home.

39. ML #12- Comma Review • Use a comma to separate independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS)- The comma comes before the FANBOYS. • He wanted to be a salesman, but no jobs were available. • Use commas to separate items in a series. • He went to the basement, set the trap and returned to the kitchen to wait • Use commas to separate coordinate adjectives that describe the same noun. • He washed his new, black, shiny pickup.

40. 4. Use commas to set off amplifying or explanatory phrases and clauses from the rest of the sentence. • Having spent his last penny, Lenny tried to borrow a quarter from his boss. 5. Use a comma to set off contrasting and nonessential phrases and clauses. • Mary Jennings, who was my best friend, dropped the class. 6. Use commas to set off an appositive. (An appositive is a noun or noun phrase that renames or explains the noun it follows. • The novel, a mystery about a secret island, was an instant bestseller. 7. Use commas to set off words in direct address, or those words that identify the one being spoken to. • Excuse me, Beth, but aren’t you late for your tennis lesson?

41. ML #12 Continued- Comma DON’Ts • DON’T- use a comma after a subject or verb. (It interrupts the flow.) Wrong: The retiring teacher, was applauded more than he expected Right: The retiring teacher was applauded more than he expected. • DON’T- use a comma when it separates a pair of words, phrases, or clauses joined by and, or, and nor. Remember, both parts of the sentence should be able to stand alone if the FANBOYS are removed. • Wrong: The Pacific Pelican population has been seriously affected by DDT, and by greedy fisherman. • Right: The Pacific Pelican population has been seriously affected by DDT and by greedy fisherman.

42. DON’T- Use a comma after a FANBOYS or words like although, because, when, since, etc. • Wrong: Although, most families eat around their television sets, mine does not. • Right: Although most families eat around their television sets, mine does not. • Wrong: Secluded little islands in the Pacific are restful and, alluring. • Right: Secluded little islands in the Pacific are restful and alluring.

43. DON’T- use a comma to begin a list or series. • Wrong: Secretaries today need skills in, typing, working on a computer, using a calculator and organizing the work flow. • Right: Secretaries today need skills in typing, working on a computer, using a calculator and organizing the work flow.

44. ML #13- Punctuation Marks • The Period (.)- use it at the end of a statement, mild command, or an indirect question. • I wonder if there will be a quiz today. • The Question Mark (?)- after a sentence that asks a question. • “Can I have your phone number?” Susanne asked Phil. • The Exclamation Point (!)- after a word or statement that expresses extreme emotion or that uses a strong command. • Note: Exclamation points lose their power if they are used too frequently. Use them sparingly.

45. The Colon • Directs attention to what follows. It has three main uses: • Use a colon to introduce a list • On her first day of vacation, Carrie did three things: she watched a funny movie, took a long nap, and ate at her favorite restaurant. • Use a colon to introduce a long or formal quotation. • The autobiography of Arthur Ashe begins with the following Biblical quotation: Since we are surrounded by so great a cloud of witnesses, let us lay aside every weight…” and so on. • Use a colon to introduce an explanation. • Bert suddenly canceled his evening plans for a simple reason: his car was out of gas.

46. Conventions ML #13- The Semicolon ; • The semicolon is used to separate similar items in a sentence. Most often, it is used between related ideas that are grammatically similar that require punctuation weaker than a period, but stronger than a comma. • Use it todivide three or more items in a serieswhen the clauses themselves contain commas • Example: The warranty on the car covered extensive repairs to the electrical system, front end, transmission, fuel injection system and valves; but the amount of time and inconvenience involved in returning each time to the dealer cannot be ignored.

47. Use it between related independent clauses not joined by FANBOYS • A mature male gorilla may be six feet tall and weigh 400 pounds or more; his enormous arms can span eight feet. • New York has twelve major stadiums; Los Angeles has fifteen • Use it between independent clauses joined by a transitional word (accordingly, also, consequently, finally, furthermore, however, indeed, meanwhile, nevertheless, similarly, still, therefore, thus, etc.) • A female coyote will not bear pups if her diet consists of fewer than fifty rodents a week; thus, Mother Nature achieves a population balance.

48. Use a semicolon to separate items in a series when the items themselves contain internal punctuation • The trio was composed of a cellist named Grosz, who had been a European virtuoso for many years; a pianist who had won a major music festival in 1954, 1955, and 1958; and a violinist who had studied in Budapest, Vienna and Munich.

49. Don’t use a semicolon when: • You are introducing a series or explanation. (That’s what we use colons and dashes for). • Faulty: Sue and Matt quickly stowed the supplies they needed into the canoe; the sleeping bags, four large jugs of water, spare boots and socks, and enough food to last them three days. • Revised: Sue and Matt quickly stowed the supplies they needed into the canoe – the sleeping bags, four large jugs of water, spare boots and socks and enough food to last them three days.

50. Conventions ML #16- Pronoun Forms • A Pronoun is a word that can be used in place of a noun. • Mel scrubbed the potatoes. Then he peeled some carrots. • There are four ways we typically use pronouns: • Subject pronouns- act as the subjects of a sentence. • I have an itch. • She always remembers her nieces’ birthdays.