PRODUCTION PROCESSES AND EQUIPMENT

1. PRODUCTION PROCESSESAND EQUIPMENT Kristo Karjust MET0180_Basic of Production Engineering

2. Cutting processes will divide: • Mechanical cutting processes; • Electrical and chemical cutting processes; • Thermal cutting processes.

3. Mechanical cutting processes Chip-removal operations Turning The turning process is characterized by solid work material, two-dimensional forming and a shear state of stress. The workpiece (W) is supported [clamped in a chuck (C) and supported by a center] and rotated (the primary motion R). Through the primary motion (R) and the translator feed (Ta =axial feed for turning and Tr = radial feed for facing) of the tool (V) the workpiece is shaped.

4. Possible workable shapes and typical turning tools Turning is used primarily in the production of various cylindrical components with nearly unlimited number of external and internal axial cross-sectional shapes (including tapers, threads etc.). Facing is used for both regular and irregular shapes. Turning is the most extensively used industrial process, because it is quite cheap and easy. In the turning process is important workpiece quality, for instance if we want to get surface quality IT6, then blank quality should be IT7. The material should not be too hard (HB<300) and should possess a minimum of ductility to confine deformation mainly to the shear zone. Generally turning provides close tolerances, often less than ± 0.01 mm. Tighter tolerances may be obtained. The surface roughness after turning is in the range 0.02 ≤ Ra ≤ 3.2 µm and quality at least IT6.

5. Cutting-Tool Geometry Tool geometry—external turning [18].

6. Lathe cutting equipment A wide variety of lathes are on the market: for instance, the engine lathe, the turret lathe, single- and multispindle screw machines, automatic lathes and NC lathes. In figure 1.1.1.3 is shown some lathes. Lathes are most frequently used machine in industry, because they are available in a wide range of sizes. Horizontal lathe and vertical lathe If heavy and large workpieces are to be machined, the horizontal lathe is impractical. Therefore, the vertical boring mill, which can be considered as a vertical lathe, has been developed [2].

7. Drilling The drilling process is characterized by solid work material, two-dimensional forming and a shear state of stress. The workpiece (W) is clamped on a table (B) and the tool (V) is given a rotation (the primary motion R) and translator feed (T). In drilling lathes, the workpiece is rotated and the feed is applied to the tool.

8. Thrust forces and torque in drilling operation [18].

9. The drilling process is primarily used to produce interior circular, cylindrical holes. Through various tools (twist drills, combination drills, spade drills, etc.) different hole shape can be produced as cylindrical holes, drilled and counterbored, drilled and countersunk, multiple diameter holes, etc. drilling is an important industrial process. Plants and equipment. Twist drills are manufactured in a wide variety of types and sizes. Various surface treatments such as cyaniding and nitriding are applied to high-speed-steel drills in order to increase the hardness of the outer layer of material. Special polishing and black oxiding are beneficial to minimize friction between the drill and the workpiece or the chips in the flutes.

10. Drilling Spiraalpuur Spiraalpuur puidule Reguleeritav puur Tapipuur Tüüblipuur

11. Betoonipuur Betooni haamerpuur Freespuur Freespuur

12. Juhtmepuur Keermepuur NC-tsentripuur Oksapuur Astmeline puur

13. Kooniline plekipuur Kooniline plekipuur Puur kahhelkivile Tsentripuur

14. Topelttsentripuur Tsentripuur

15. Milling The milling process is characterized by solid work material, two-dimensional forming (one dimensional forming may be used in a few cases) and a shear state of stress. The workpiece (W) is clamped on the table (B), which is given a translatory feed (T), that together with the primary motion (R) of the cutter (V) provides the many geometrical possibilities.

17. The milling process, through the various types of cutters and the wide variety of machines, is a versatile high-production process. Typical milling cutters like arbor-mounted cutters (a) and shank mounted (b) cutters. Milling cutters are usually made of hard alloys, sometimes also diamonds and metal ceramics. Hard alloy cutters permit roughness in steel Rz = 1...2 m and cast Rz = 4...7 m. Generally diamonds and metal ceramics cutters is used quit little, because they are slight [5].

18. Kalasabafrees Otsfrees 2-he teraline sõrmfrees Sõrmfrees – 2-he teraline soonfrees

19. Mitmeteraline sõrmfrees laastujagajaga 3-me teraline sõrmfrees Mitmeteraline sõrmfrees Otsraadiusega sõrmfrees Ümardusfrees- sõrmfrees T-soonefrees

20. Kõvasulamplaadiga nurgafrees Kõvasulamplaadiga otsfrees Kõvasulamplaadiga sõrmfrees

21. There are: a - key-seating milling with disk cutters; b - slot milling with disk cutter; c - difficult contour cutting with different cutters (1,2,3,4,5); d – angle milling with angle cutter; e - T- slot milling with T-slot cutter; f- step milling with end mill; g – slot milling with T-slot cutter; h – two sided angle milling with angle cutter; i – incline surface milling with tool bit angle cutter. Generally the milling process comes close to turning in extensive industrial use, since the geometrical possibilities are enormous and the removal rate high [3]. Typical milling operations

22. Surface quality and accuracy. The hardness of the material should not be too high ( HB < 250 – 300) and a minimum of ductility is advisable. The obtained tolerances are ±0.05 mm, surface roughness is 3.2 ≤ Ra ≤ 6.3 µm and the quality IT7. Manufacturing depends on material structure and strength [5] Cutting action in up-and-down milling [18].

23. Many different milling machines are on the market: for instance universal column-and-knee-type milling machines (plain column-and-knee-type milling machines supplied with a swivel on the saddle, enabling helices to be cut when swiveling the work table), ram-type milling machines and planer-type milling machines. Milling machines can also be used for drilling and boring. Milling machines are among the most important machine tools, as they can produce wide variety of machined surfaces [2]. Horizontal milling machine and plain column-and-knee-type milling machine

24. Reaming Reaming is a sizing or scraping operation in which the tool cuts slightly larger than its own diameter, usually direct proportion to the amount of stock to be removed. For efficient operation, reamers must be cutting at all times, which is possible only when they are being used in properly drilled holes. Removal of too much stock by reaming often causes oversize and rough holes. Surface quality and accuracy. We can ream cylindrical and conical holes, different materials like steel, cast iron, colored metals and alloys. Accuracy is generally 5..6 IT and the surface roughness will normally be in the range 0,08 < Ra < 0,63 µm

25. Product design factors related to reaming

26. Plants and equipment. A reamer is a rotary cutting tool, generally of cylindrical or conical shape, intended for enlarging and finishing holes to accurate dimensions. It is usually equipped with two or more peripheral grooves or flutes, either parallel to its axis or in a right-or left-hand helix as required. Those with helical flutes provide smooth shear cutting and produce a better finish. The flutes form cutting teeth and provide grooves for removing the chips. Commercial types of reamers

27. Broaching Broaching is a high-production metal removal process that sometimes is required to make one-of-a-kind parts. Broaching is at its best in machining simple surfaces or complex contours. Properly used modern broaching processes can greatly increase productivity, hold tight tolerances, produce precision finishes and eliminate the need for highly skilled machine operators. The length of a broaching tool is determined by the practice by the amount of stock to be removed and limited by the machine stroke, bending moments, stiffness, accuracy and other factors. The length of an internal push broach should not exceed 25 times the diameter of the finishing teeth, a pull broach usually is limited to 75 times the finishing diameter.

28. Standard broach part and nomenclature [18].

29. The broaching tool may be pulled or pushed across a workpiece surface or the surface may move across the tool. Internal broaching requires a starting hole or opening in the workpiece for insertion of the broaching tool. The final shape may be a smoother, flatter surface, a larger hole or a complex splined, flanged, toothed, notched, curved, spiral or irregularly shaped section. Possible workable shapes

30. Examples of types of broaching tools

31. A simple classification scheme for broaching machines Surface quality and accuracy. Generally any material that can be machined can be broached. Good tolerances can be obtained ( ± 0.1 mm ± 0.02 mm) and accuracy generally IT 7. The surface roughness will normally be in the range 0,8 < Ra < 2,0 µm [5].

32. Planing The planning process is characterized by solid work material, two-dimensional forming (sometimes one-dimensional forming) and a shear state of stress. The workpiece (W) is clamped on the table (B), which is given a translatory primary motion (Tb) and the tool (V) is given a translator feed (Tv), providing the geometrical possibilities[2]. The hardness of the material should generally not exceed HB = 300 and a minimum of ductility is advisable. Planing depends on material structure and strength. Surface quality depends on cutting velocity and depths. The obtained tolerances are normally ± 0.05 to ± 0.10 mm and accuracy generally IT 3..4. The surface roughness is in the range 0.63 ≤ Ra ≤ 2.5 µm [5].

33. There are used straight and clinced planing cutters in planing machines. a – straight cutters; b – loop cutters; c – expansive loop cutters; d – edge cutters; e – slash cutters. There are many different types of planing machines like pit-type planer, double housing planer, open-side planer, edge or plate planers.

34. The planing process is in general used to produce large horizontal, vertical, inclined flat surfaces, also T – slot and angle-shape grooves. Some planing examples are shown in figure, where: a – horizontal, vertical and incline surface planing; b – groove planing; c – T –slot planing; d – angle planing; e – dificult surface planing.

35. Grinding The grinding process is characterized by solid work material, two-dimensional forming (one-dimensional may occur) and a shear state of stress. The workpiece (W) is supported between centers (P) or clamped on a table (B) and given a rotary (R) and translatory (T) feed. The tool V (the grinding wheel) is given a rotary primary motion (Rv) and depending on the particular process, sometimes a feeding motion also. Tolerances are around ± 0.001 mm and surface roughness is 0,04 µm < Ra < 0,32 µm. the surface accuracy should be at least IT 7 and in plain grinding IT 6. The grinding processes have a low material removal rate [5].

36. where a – straight profile plain wheel, which is used for cylindrical, internal, center less and surface grinding; b, c – conical profile plain wheels, which are used for thread, gear etc. grinding; d – opened hole plain wheels, which are used for cylindrical and surface grinding; e – sheet wheels (thickness 0.5 … 5 mm), which are used for cutting; f, g, h – band and pan wheels, which are used for flat grinding.

37. The grain size of the abrasive is an important factor in selecting the correct grinding wheel. Grain sizes are classified in accordance with an international mesh size in mesh/inch, ranging from 8 (coarse) to 1200 (super-fine). In the case of diamond and boron nitride grinding wheels, European grinding wheel manufacturers indicate grain size by the diameter of the abrasive grains in microns

38. The most frequently used grinding tool is the grinding wheel used for cylindrical or plain grinding. Grinding offers close dimensional control and fine surface finishes and has become extremely important in recent years, because of the increasing demands of high accuracy and surface quality. Formerly grinding was used only for finishing operations, but rapid development is taking place with regard to roughing (high-speed) grinding, which may substitute for turning and milling [2].

39. The grinding processes are used primarily in finishing cylindrical or flat surfaces which have been produced by various other processes. Different grinding operations.

40. Today roughing grinding including profile grinding at high cutting speeds, can sometimes substitute for turning, milling or planing. Different grinding operations.

41. Typical grinding machines: (A) grinding wheel; (B) workpiece

42. Honing Honing is a low-velocity abrading process using bonded-abrasive stick for removing stock from metallic and nonmetallic surfaces. As one of the last operations performed on the surface of a part, honing generates functional characteristics specified for a surface and involves the correction of errors resulting from previous operations. Functional characteristics generated by honing include geometric accuracy, dimensional accuracy and surface character (roughness, lay pattern and integrity) In honing the tolerances are around ± 0.001 mm and surface roughness is 0,08 µm < Ra < 0,32 µm. The surface accuracy should be at least IT 6 and in flat honing IT 4. [5, lk2900]

43. Common types of fixtured honing tools

44. The most common application of honing is on the internal cylindrical surfaces. However, honing is also used to generate functional characteristics on external cylindrical surfaces, flat surfaces, truncate spherical surfaces and toroidal surfaces (both internal and external). Honing operations: (A) internal cylindrical surface honing; (B) external cylindrical surface honing; (C) flat surface honing; (1) tool; (2) workpiece

45. Electrical and chemical finishing processes • Electrical, chemical and electrochemical machining are relatively new methods of removing metal directly by electrical, chemical and/or thermal energy and without mechanical forces. • Such processes have been called nonconventional or nontraditional, several them (especially electrical-discharge machining, electrochemical machining and electrochemical grinding) are now being widely used and should be considered with the standard manufacturing methods.

46. Electrical – discharge machining (EDM) Electrical-discharge machining (EDM) is a method of removing metal by a series of rapidly recurring electrical discharges between an electrode (the cutting tool) and the workpiece in the presence of a liquid (usually hydrocarbon dielectric). Minute particles of metal or “chips” (generally in the form of hollow spheres) are removed by melting and vaporization and are flushed from the gap between tool and work. Basic components of an electrical discharge machine

47. Types of power-supply circuits used for EDM

48. The EDM tool electrode is the means by which electric current is transported to the work piece. Shape of the electrode establishes a pattern whereby sparks will occur between the tool and work piece and the desired shape will be machined. Shapes machined are the opposite of the electrode shapes. A requirement for any material used for an EDM electrode is that it be a conductor of electricity. Insulating materials are not usable. A wide variety of materials are used in the manufacture of electrodes. Most used materials are graphite, copper, brass, copper tungsten, silver tungsten, carbide and zinc alloys.

49. The several methods of introducing dielectric fluid to the arc gap fall into four broad classifications: normal flow; reverse flow; jet flushing; immersion flushing. Several methods of introducing dielectric fluid Generally the surface roughness is Ra 1,6...3,2 µm, but it could be also 0,05...0,1 µm. Generally EDM provides close tolerances, often 50 µm and IT 7.. As a result, the smoothness of surfaces produced by EDM is generally limited more by economics than by the technological potential of the process.

50. Electrochemical machining Electrochemical machining (ECM) is important method of removing metal without the use of mechanical or thermal energy. Electric energy is combined with a chemical to form a reaction of reverse plating. Direct current at relatively high amperage and low voltage is continuously passed between that anodic work piece and cathodic tool (electrode) through a conductive electrolyte. At the anode surface, electrons are removed by the current flow and the metallic bonds of the molecular structure of this surface broken. These surface atoms proceed to go into solution as metal ions. Simultaneously positive hydrogen ions are attracted to the negatively charged surface and emitted at the cathode surface to form hydrogen atoms, which combine to form hydrogen molecules. Dissolved material is removed from the gap between work and tool by the flow of electrolyte, which also aids in carrying away the heat and hydrogen formed.