Archetypes of Wisdom

1. Archetypes of Wisdom Douglas J. Soccio Chapter 4 The Wise Man: Socrates

2. Learning Objectives • On completion of this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions: • What is the “Socratic problem”? • What is a Paradigmatic Individual? • What is the Socratic Dialectic? • What role did Socrates’ ugliness play in his philosophy? • What role did Socrates’ poverty play in his philosophy? • What role does Socrates’ claim of ignorance play in the philosophy? • What is Socratic irony? • Why did some Athenians think that Socrates was a Sophist? • What is Socratic Intellectualism?

3. The Socratic Problem • Although he is arguably the most enigmatic figure in the history of Western philosophy, almost everything we know about Socrates (c.470-399 B.C.E.) comes from two of his students – Plato and Xenophon. • Since Socrates wrote no philosophy (only a few hymns and verses), we have no first-hand account of his thoughts, creating what W.K.C. Guthrie calls the “Socratic problem.” • Guthrie says that in the end, “we must all have to some extent our own Socrates” – meaning that each of us has to decide for ourselves just what Socrates actually thought.

4. The General Character of Socrates • One thing we do know is that Socrates was reputed to be “less than attractive.” Perhaps for this reason, Socrates claimed that the appearance of the body is less important than how it functions. True beauty is the beauty of spirit and character. • He said that the true self is not the body but the psyche – a combination of what we think of as the mind and the soul. • Socrates believed that the human psyche is the essence of humanness (or the essential aspect of being human), and our capacity for conscious deliberation or reflective thinking. The character of his own psyche was Socrates greatest concern. And it showed in how he lived his life.

5. Barefoot in Athens • Socrates was usually barefoot and apparently had only one tattered coat, about which his friends joked. • His enemies accused him of being “unwashed.” • One of Socrates’ most noted characteristics was his hardiness, reflected in remarkable self-control, or temperance. • In this sense, temperance is indifference to material pleasures (not total abstinence or extreme asceticism).

6. Socrates’ Temperance • Socrates believed that “to have no wants is divine.” • In Xenophon’s Memorabilia, Socrates argues that self-control – rather than the self-indulgence of satisfying all desire – leads to pleasure. • Control of the self, or psyche, was Socrates’ chief pursuit as he walked around Athens, without the material goods so often pursued for the sake of happiness.

7. An Archetypal (or Paradigmatic) Individual • Socrates is a genuine archetypal (or paradigmatic) individual. • He is a rare human being whose very nature represents something elemental about the human condition. • The philosopher and psychologist Karl Jaspers coined the term paradigmatic individual to refer to a special class of teachers, philosophers, and religious figures whose nature becomes a standard by which a culture judges the “ideal” human being.

8. An Archetypal Individual • Like Confucius, Buddha and Jesus, Socrates may be considered such a paradigmatic individual. • Though such individuals may seem strange or unusual, they are so in a way that is unsettling to our everyday habits and values. • Socrates challenges us to question what we really know and how we ought to live. • His own life becomes a “human paradigm,” an example for us all.

9. The Teacher and His Teachings • Unlike the Sophists, Socrates was not paid to be a teacher, and he did not claim to “teach” anyone (in the usual sense of instruction). Instead, he asked questions and did his best to answer the questions of others. • Socrates argued that one of the chief reasons many people cannot think clearly is that they are not clear on what they are talking about. So, the first order of business is to “define our terms.” • As a result, definitions – just what something is, and what makes it that – rather than a list of examples, are of particular importance to Socrates.

10. Dialectic • Socrates’ method of inquiry differs from normal question asking in that he assumes the function of education is to draw the truth out of the pupil by guiding them, rather than just “filling an empty vessel.” • This method is referred to as Socratic dialectic – two speakers interacting to draw out the truth through the process of “defining” what and how things are. • A vital aspect of Socratic teaching is the active involvement of the students, hence the use of questions rather than straight lectures.

11. Socratic Irony • A key element in keeping his pupils engaged was Socrates’ use of irony. An ironic utterance communicates on two levels of meaning: a literal, or obvious, level and the hidden, or real, level. • In his conversations with others, Socrates used irony to suggest that there was something they could teach him, when he was actually showing them that they did not clearly understand themselves the things they claimed to have knowledge about. • One example is in the Apology, where Socrates uses irony to refer to the persuasive abilities of the Sophists who have not persuaded him of anything.

12. Socrates at Work • His ironic manner often enraged others – as it did the Sophist Thrasymachus (c.450 B.C.E.). • In a passage from The Republic, Thrasymachus bursts into a discussion Socrates is having about the nature of justice. • Infuriated at how Socrates is making conventional notions of morality seem, Thrasymachus tries to defend the Sophist contention that “might makes right,” and that justice is determined by “the interest of the strong.” • He claims that the unjust man always profits more than the just man. • Socrates replies that the unjust man would not be happy in the society he is creating, since others would act in similar ways, and always be suspicious of him.

13. The Unexamined Life • Short-sighted mistakes like Thrasymachus’s show that people do not think as much about things as they might. • Philosophical speculation is, therefore, not merely a theoretical pursuit, but of great practical benefit, for it helps us live better lives. • For Socrates, a life devoid of such speculation is incomplete. If the psyche is not fully functional, such a life is hardly human. • For that reason, Socrates claimed that “the unexamined life is not worth living,” since what is most definitive about a person is not functioning.

14. Socratic “Ignorance” • Socrates claimed not to have knowledge (another reason for not being a “teacher”). • But legend has it that the Oracle of Delphi said, “No man is wiser than Socrates.” • This means either that Socrates is the wisest man in Athens or that he is as wise as anyone gets. • The first would make him unique; the second would make him merely human. • To find out what the Oracle meant, and if what it had said was true, Socrates spent his life talking to others – hoping to find someone wiser.

15. Physician of the Soul • Socrates’ mission centered on his conviction that the “real person” is not the body, but the psyche, so that seeking one’s welfare is a matter of seeking the welfare of one’s soul. • The excellent functioning of the soul is what Socrates thought of as virtue (arete in Greek). • He believed that virtue is a special kind of knowledge that combines technical understanding with the skill and character to apply that knowledge. • For this, he used the Greek term techne, meaning the practical knowledge of how to do things.

16. The Trial of Socrates • Socrates was motivated by what might be intellectualism, that behavior is motivated by beliefs rather than desires. • That led him to ask many people about their beliefs, many of whom unable to answer his questions and did not share his intellectualism. • Since some of these people were in positions of authority, Socrates’ questions were often embarrassing to them. • Thrasymachus had warned that “might makes right,” and soon Socrates was on trial – accused of inventing new gods and corrupting the youth of the city. • At the trial, he gave his honest defense against these charges, recorded in Plato’s dialogue the Apology.

17. The Death of Socrates • Despite his efforts, Socrates was found guilty. • He waited a month for his execution, during which he continued to pursue his philosophical questions. • Despite entreaties from his friends, and opportunity of exile, Socrates refused to disobey the law by trying to escape. • Genuinely concerned about his own soul, he was determined to do the right thing. He had always expected to die; the city had just changed the date. • He instructed his friend Crito to do with his body whatever he thought best, bid everyone farewell, drank the hemlock he was given, and died.

18. Know Thyself • Socrates’ concern to be a good person is admirable. But continuing to philosophize even in the face of death makes sense if we recall that psyche means both soul and mind. • Because Socrates thought of himself as his psyche, gaining knowledge became the same thing as getting better at being a person, or becoming a better person. • His motto “Know Thyself” amounts to the claim that gaining knowledge or understanding – knowing oneself – is an integral part of becoming a better person. • His concern for the welfare of his soul is then inextricably linked to his desire for knowledge and his love of wisdom.

19. Discussion Questions • Imagine an encounter between Socrates and today’s confident “sages” and professional advice-givers in the media, government, and entertainment world. What would Socrates say? How might contemporary sages respond? • Consider a modern-day sage such as television talk-show host Dr. Phil. How do you think Dr. Phil would fare with Socrates as a guest?

20. Chapter Review:Key Concepts • Archetypal individual/paradigmatic individual • Socratic dialectic/Socratic method • Irony • Psyche • Virtue • techne • Intellectualism