Chapter 6: Learning

1. Chapter 6: Learning

2. Classical Conditioning • Ivan Pavlov • Terminology • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning (meat powder) • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): a previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response (bell after conditioning)

3. Classical Conditioning • Unconditioned Response (UCR): an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning (salivation before conditioning) • Conditioned Response (CR): a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning (salivation after conditioning)

4. Classical Conditioning • Neutral Stimulus: does not evoke a response (bell)

5. Figure 6.1 Classical conditioning apparatus

6. Figure 6.2 The sequence of events in classical conditioning

7. Figure 6.3 Classical conditioning of a fear response

8. Classical Conditioning: More Terminology • Trial = pairing of UCS and CS • Acquisition = initial stage in learning • Stimulus contiguity = occurring together in time and space

9. Classical Conditioning: More Terminology • 3 types of Classical Conditioning • Simultaneous conditioning: CS and UCS begin and end together • Short-delayed conditioning: CS begins just before the UCS, end together • Trace conditioning: CS begins and ends before UCS is presented

10. Processes in Classical Conditioning • Extinction: the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response • Spontaneous Recovery: reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus

11. Processes in Classical Conditioning • Stimulus Generalization: the organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in the same way to stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus • Stimulus Discrimination: the organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus • Higher-order conditioning

12. Figure 6.7 Acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery

13. Figure 6.10 Higher-order conditioning

14. Operant Conditioningor Instrumental Learning • Edward L. Thorndike (1913) – the law of effect • B.F. Skinner (1953) – principle of reinforcement • Operant chamber • Emission of response • Reinforcement contingencies • Cumulative recorder

15. Figure 6.12 Reinforcement in operant conditioning

16. Figure 6.13 Skinner box and cumulative recorder

17. Basic Processes in Operant Conditioning • Acquisition • Shaping: consists of the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response • Extinction: in operant conditioning this occurs if we stop providing reinforcement. • Stimulus Control • Generalization • Discrimination

18. Table 6.1 Comparison of Basic Processes in Classical and Operant Conditioning

19. Reinforcement:Consequences that Strengthen Responses • Primary Reinforcers • Satisfy biological needs • Secondary Reinforcers • Conditioned reinforcement

20. Schedules of Reinforcement • Continuous reinforcement • Intermittent (partial) reinforcement • Ratio schedules • Fixed (piece work on assembly line) • Variable (slot machine) • Interval schedules • Fixed (paycheck every two weeks) • Variable (fishing)

21. Figure 6.17 Schedules of reinforcement and patterns of response

22. Consequences:Reinforcement and Punishment • Increasing a response: • Positive reinforcement = response followed by rewarding stimulus • Negative reinforcement = response followed by removal of an aversive stimulus • Escape learning • Avoidance learning • Decreasing a response: • Punishment • Problems with punishment

23. Figure 6.18 Positive reinforcement versus negative reinforcement

24. Figure 6.19 Escape and avoidance learning

25. Figure 6.20 Comparison of negative reinforcement and punishment

26. Changes in Our Understandingof Conditioning • Biological Constraints on Conditioning • Instinctive Drift • Conditioned Taste Aversion • Preparedness and Phobias • Cognitive Influences on Conditioning • Signal relations • Response-outcome relations • Evolutionary Perspectives on learning

27. Figure 6.22 Conditioned taste aversion

28. Observational Learning: Basic Processes • Albert Bandura (1977, 1986) • Observational learning: an organism’s response is influenced by the observation of others • Vicarious conditioning • 4 key processes • attention • retention • reproduction • motivation • acquisition vs. performance

29. Figure 6.25 Observational learning