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Pest Control L7

Pest Control L7. English in Natural Science 自然科学の英語. Definitions. Pest: animal species that interferes with human activities Weed: a plant ‘pest’ Pest control : reduction of pest/weed populations to not damaging levels. Damage is measured in economic terms

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Pest Control L7

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  1. Pest ControlL7 English in Natural Science 自然科学の英語 自然科学の英語-ENS-L7

  2. Definitions • Pest: animal species that interferes with human activities • Weed: a plant ‘pest’ • Pest control: reduction of pest/weed populations to not damaging levels • Damage is measured in economic terms • Eradication (pest extinction) is practically impossible 自然科学の英語-ENS-L7

  3. Disease 12% Weeds 13 Insects 13* Storage 20 Total 48% Crop losses light water crop pests harvest yield * Rice 16.2% (Crammer, 1967) crop Market yield weeds diseases nutrients storage pests Control of pest/weeds more crop yield 自然科学の英語-ENS-L7

  4. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) • Use all methods of control in a scientific manner to reduce crop damage due to pests, weeds and diseases • Strategies • Natural control: natural enemies • Biological control: introduced predators, parasites or diseases; reproductive control • Agronomic control: crop rotation, strip cropping, burning, mulching, • Pesticides: treatment with chemical poisons 自然科学の英語-ENS-L7

  5. Crop rotation Change conditions for pest development Based on life cycles Strip cropping Protect and foster natural enemies Lower pest densities Burning of crop residues Destroy pest larvae Re-start from scratch - secondary succession Mulching Avoid weeds Light competition Chemical allelopathy Agronomic control Sustainable solutions (1-3 years) Require continuous use Alone or combined 自然科学の英語-ENS-L7

  6. Scientific basis Each pest has natural predators, parasites and competitors Bring equilibrium predator-prey below the economic threshold of pest Increase of predatory populations (After Van der Bosch et al. 1982) Biological control Long-term solutions Sustainable 自然科学の英語-ENS-L7

  7. Cottony-cushion scale (Icerya purchasi, Hemiptera) Native country: Australia Pest problem in California Discovered 1872 Pest in Citrusorchards (1887) Control: Cyanide pesticide: failure parasite (Cryptochaetum iceryae, Diptera) vedalia (Rodolia cardinalis, Coleoptera) Achieved in 1 year Total cost: $1,500 Prickly pear (Opuntia stricta) Native countries: Mexico, South America Weed problem in Australia Ornamental (1839) Weed invasion: 1880-1925 243,000 km2 prickly thickets Control: moth Cactoblastis cactorum from Argentina Achieved in 10 years (1940) Efficacy of biological control 自然科学の英語-ENS-L7

  8. Mixomatosis (Myers et al. 1954) Mixomatosis (Fenner and Myers 1978) Parasites and diseases • Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) introduced in Australia (1859) • 20 years later became a serious pest: ate pasture  desertification • Control: mixoma virus (Leporipoxvirus) from S America (1950) • Problems: • escape in Europe (non-target area) • resistance by natural selection (1965) BUT populations reduced < threshold 自然科学の英語-ENS-L7

  9. Problems of biological control • Success rate 16% (Hall et al., 1980) • Reasons: • One species controls better than several • Competition loss of efficacy • Introduced species may prey on non-target species • Reduce efficacy • Side-effects on ecosystems To be effective • Only if economic injury exists • Specialist predators/parasites • Generalist snail (Euglandina rosea) eliminated 60% of native snails in Hawaii • Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) in Hawaii, Okinawa and Pacific Islands • After research on ecological effects: demography 自然科学の英語-ENS-L7

  10. Sterilization • Irradiation of male insects (USDA, 1950s) • Background • X-rays caused sterility in male insects (1916) • Dr Edward Knipling (1954) in screw-worm fly (Cochliomyia hominivorax)- subtropical America • livestock in Florida • Forest insects in Canada • Melon fly (Bactrocera cucurbitae) in Okinawa (1972-1993) Koyama et al. 2004 • Tse-tse fly in Rhodesia 自然科学の英語-ENS-L7

  11. Immunocontraception • Vaccine that reduces fertility • glycoproteins (ZPG) inhibit egg fertilization • Effective against wildlife populations • Deer in New York • Rabbits in Australia (invasive species) 自然科学の英語-ENS-L7

  12. Efficacy of immunocontraception • Sterilization produces fewer offspring • Surviving animals live longer - compensation • High level of sterility is required (>80% females) 自然科学の英語-ENS-L7

  13. Advantages Species specific Sex specific pheromones most effective (99%) Tiny amounts used as baits Work at long distance (30 kms) No possible ‘resistance’ Shortcomings Only adult insects Not applicable to all insects pests Seasonal efficacy (mating season) Pheromone traps • Pheromones: chemical substances used by animals (mainly insects) to communicate • Moths and bark beetles • Kinds • aggregation • sexual - released by females to attract males 自然科学の英語-ENS-L7

  14. Chemical control: Pesticides • Pesticides are a short-term solution, the last tool to be used in IPM because: • Contaminate the environment (water, soil, air) and agricultural products (residues in vegetables, meat) • Non selective: affect also non-target species • Pest species eventually become resistant • In some cases have produced more pest problems • When can be used? • Whenever there is economic injury and other treatments are not effective 自然科学の英語-ENS-L7

  15. Kinds of pesticides 自然科学の英語-ENS-L7

  16. Crop losses in USA (Pimentel 1991, 1997) Pesticides efficacy • Pesticides  less economic benefit • Control cost • Chemicals • Spraying equipment • tractor booms • airplane or helicopter • Personnel (applicators) • Despite increasing use after 30 years • More pests • More crop losses Economic benefit = crop value - cost of control 自然科学の英語-ENS-L7

  17. (DeBach, 1974) Insecticide problems for pest control • Kill natural enemies • Foster outbreaks of insects which become pests • California red scale (Aonidiella aurantii) on lemon trees after DDT • Cottony-cushion scale (Icerya purchasi) on Citrus after DDT • insects in rice crops (1965-1970) 自然科学の英語-ENS-L7

  18. Leptocorisa chinensis Sogatella furcifera Nilaparvata lugens Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus Chilo supressalis Nephotettix cincticeps Laodelphas striatellus Main pest species Lagynotomus elongatus Echinocnemus squameus Cnaphalocrocis medinalis Nephotettix cincticeps Sogatella furcifera Nilaparvata lugens Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus Dicladispa armigera Oulema oryzae Scotinophara lurida Scirpophaga incertulas Oxya spp YEAR 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Monophagous Univoltine Polyphagous Multivoltine Pest type Polyphagous Multivoltine Virus vectors Low density Virus vectors Green Revolution Fertilizers Irrigation Pesticides Mechanization Nursery-tray treatment Selective pesticides IPM Education Organic Technology Increase yield Increase quality Sustainability Aims Paddy fields in Japan After Kiritanai (1992) 自然科学の英語-ENS-L7

  19. Pesticide effects on ecosystems • Direct effects due to toxicity • Mortality: insecticides >fungicides>herbicides • Sublethal (non-target organisms) • Stress parasites and diseases • Reproduction: endocrine disruption (OC insecticides) • Abnormal growth (malformation) • Indirect effects - trophic web • Food depletion starvation death migration • Herbicides: phytoplankton consumers starvation • Insecticides: zooplankton algal blooms 自然科学の英語-ENS-L7

  20. Decline of birds of prey 1963 Ratcliffe: survey of Peregrine falcon in UK – 1/5 birds bred successfully 1964 Hickey et al.: surveys in US confirmed trend and raised alarm - raptors were disappearing due to continuous reproductive failures Why? 自然科学の英語-ENS-L7

  21. 1966 Ames: reproductive failure of birds of prey correlated to shell-thinning 1967 Ratcliffe: eggshell thinning in certain raptors since 1947 (Nature 215:208) • Hickey & Anderson: eggshell thinning in predators / fishing-eating birds pesticides blamed DDT in agriculture (England) 自然科学の英語-ENS-L7

  22. Cascade effect of DDT & cyclodienes Bioaccumulation Calcium metabolism Eggshell thinner Embryo mortality Decline reproductive rate Local extinctions 1969 Laboratories confirmed the cause of eggshell thinning: organochlorines Until 1974: debate on how DDT and organochlorines affected eggshell thinning • DDE caused shell thinning in birds of prey, but not in gallinaceous species (Cooke, 1975) • PCBs did not cause eggshell thinning (Peakall, 1993) 自然科学の英語-ENS-L7

  23. Lack of food Partridge (Perdix perdix) in many countries • Causes of decline • Nest loss (26%) • chick mortality (29%  44%) • hunting (7%) • winter loss (38%) Potts (1986) 自然科学の英語-ENS-L7

  24. Decline of birds due to pesticides • Herbicides eliminate weeds  reduce insects and seeds • Food shortage (insects, seeds) increase chick mortality 自然科学の英語-ENS-L7

  25. Other ecosystems • Waterways • Crops • Forests • Urban Air Long-range transport Volatilisation Drift Runoff Groundwater Rivers Drains Rivers, lakes Ocean Leaching Transport routes 自然科学の英語-ENS-L7

  26. Pesticide losses *Difficult to estimate due to sorption and slow movement 99% Pesticide losses environmental contamination (Pimentel et al., 1992) 自然科学の英語-ENS-L7

  27. Volatilisation Plants Photolysis Biodegradation Absorption UV Photolysis Water Soil Photolysis Hydrolysis Biodegradation Sedimentation Biodegradation Hydrolysis Leaching Residue Dissipation of pesticides Half-life: the time required to reduce to half the amount of a substance 自然科学の英語-ENS-L7

  28. deposit diffusion sequestration metabolism translocation uptake Residues in crop plants and products 自然科学の英語-ENS-L7

  29. Ensuring food safety • Cost of the Green Revolution • Check residue levels in food • National produce (market) • Imports from other countries (31 Quarantine Stations Japan) • Analytical laboratories • Huge cost for governments • Reject food with residues >MRL (Maximum Residue Limit) 自然科学の英語-ENS-L7 * Figures indicate tons

  30. References • Charles J. Krebs, 2001. Ecology 5th ed. / 応用動物昆虫学 room B-226 • David Pimentel, 1991. Handbook of Pest Management in Agriculture. CRC Press, Florida, USA • F. Moriarty, 1983. Ecotoxicology. Academic Press / 応用動物昆虫学 room B-207 • Rachel Carson, 1962. Silent Spring. Houghton Mifflin / 応用動物昆虫学 room B-207 自然科学の英語-ENS-L7

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