Part II

1. 1. Intro to Geology 4. Earth’s Materials and minerals 3. Rock Cycle and Rock types 4. Structure of Earth 10. Hydrologic Cycle 8. Rock Weathering & Soils 6.Mass wasting 10. Streams Running water 11. Groundwater 12 13. Glaciers Deserts & winds 14. Work of Ocean Shorelines 8. Geologic time 17. Rock deformation 2 . Plate Tectonics 16. Earthquakes, Tsunamis 17. Volcanoes Hazards 18. Hawaii Geology 19 Geothermal resources 20. Maui, Molokai, Lanai, Kahoolawe 21. Kauai 22. Oahu Earth’s Materials & structure External processes Part II External factors, Water resources Where are we??? Part III Internal Processes Part IV Hawaiian Islands Geology, Volcanic Processes, Hazards, Geothermal Resources

2. Hawaii Born of Fire Volcanic eruptions are one type of phenomena that have shaped the Earth over the past four billion years. The products of the volcanic eruptions are creation of more land and islands in the deep open sea. Hawaiian Islands are one example of active volcanic processes. However, there is still much to learn about how Hawaiian volcanoes erupt and how island develops from the ocean floor. The history of the volcanic islands of Hawaii and the land formed by the volcanoes is very contrasting and\mysterious.

3. Volcanic Air Pollution

8. KILAUEA'S FUMES OVER HAWAII A CONCERN LONG-TERM EFFECTS ON HEALTH, CROPS, BUSINESS CONCERN RESIDENTS

11. Vog Volcanic fog safety tips • Stay indoors and use an air conditioner, if available. • Do not smoke and avoid second-hand smoke. • Limit physical exertion. • Drink plenty of fluids to loosen mucus. Warm beverages seem to work best. • If you take medications, make sure you have an adequate supply and keep them readily available in a convenient place. • Contact your physician as soon as any respiratory problem develops. • While these recommendations are intended primarily for persons having respiratory or chronic lung disease, they are also useful for healthy persons during vog episodes. • To obtain additional information on respiratory health, contact your personal physician or the American Lung Association of Hawai`i at (808) 537-5966.

12. So-called vog, or volcanic fog, forms when sulfur dioxide gas reacts with sunlight, oxygen, dust particles and water in the air. Tiny droplets known as sulfate aerosols are created, along with sulfuric acid and other substances. Elevated levels of sulfur dioxide gas could cause breathing problems, especially among those with respiratory conditions such as asthma, emphysema and bronch

13. Halau makes offering to Pele at Kilauea Volcano lookout :Dancers with Halau Ka Liko Pua O Kalaniakea, under the direction of Kumu Kapua Dalire-Moe danced and chanted to pay their respects to Pele on April 2, 2008. Volcanic fumes spewed from Halemaumau in the background. After the halau danced and chanted, they threw all their leis into the crater, returning them back to the earth

14. L A Z E = Lava+ Haze

15. Air Pollution Dispersion and Air Quality Forecasting

16. Vog Spreads over Hawaii Hotspot taking Inter-Island trips

17. Located in the Central Pacific, just south of the Tropic of Cancer and east of the International Date Line, the islands of Hawai‘i enjoy a tropical climate. The general climate of the islands features moderate temperature from the high 70s to the mid 80s (degrees Fahrenheit) throughout the year. The islands are also subjected to winds generally from the northeast and localized rainfall storms.

19. Chemicals and Ingredients of the Volcanic Eruptions determine the Health Risks Dispersion and Air Quality Forecasting

20. WHAT IS AIR POLLUTION Definition Chemical, physical or biological agents that alter the natural characteristics of the Earth’s atmosphere Examples Chemical: Polycyclicaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) Physical: Particulate matter (PM), nuclear radiation Biological: Pollen, mold, germ warfare

21. SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION Human activities Manufacturing, trade & warfare Fuel & power production Agricultural production & burning Transportation Household activities & waste disposal Construction Natural? Volcanic eruptions, wildlife emissions, dust, wildfires, radiation

22. Air Pollution – Natural Pollution, Volcanic Air Pollution Types of Contamination Gases, Vapors, Aerosols, Particulates, Volcanic Ash Public Health- How does air pollution affect me? Air Quality Index More Information All around the earth there is a thick blanket of air called the atmosphere. Air, like other gases, does not have a fixed shape. It spreads out to fill any available space so nothing is really empty. But air cannot escape from the atmosphere as the force of gravity keeps it from floating away from the earth.

23. Ozone layer Volcano Smoke Particles

24. Volcanic degassing vog Long-lasting Eruption of Kilauea Volcano, Hawai`iLeads to Volcanic-Air Pollution of volcanic smoke particles The volcanic smog--or vog, as it is called--contains sulfur dioxide, which turns rainwater acidic and causes respiratory health problems.

25. Vog may pose health hazard

26. Volcanic Air Pollution—A Hazard in Hawai`i When Lava Meets the Sea – Lava Haze or Laze Air Pollution Pahoehoe lava enters sea. Extreme heat from lava entering the sea rapidly boils and vaporizes seawater, leading to a series of chemical reactions. The boiling and reactions produce a large white plume, locally known as lava haze or laze, which contains a mixture of hydrochloric acid (HCl) and concentrated seawater.

27. Avoid standing beneath a laze plume.Dense laze plumes contain as much as 10-15 parts per million of hydrochloric acid. These values drop off sharply as the plume moves away from the lava entry areas. During along-shore or on-shore winds, this plume produces acid rain that may fall on people and land along the coast. This rain (pH 1.5 to 2), often more acidic that lime juice or stomach acid, is very corrosive to the skin and clothing. Visitors to the lava entry areas should avoid standing directly in, under, or downwind of the laze plume. \

28. Much is still unknown about vog's composition and its effects on health. On the Island of Hawai`i, the trade winds (blue arrows) blow the vog from its main source on the volcano (white plume) to the southwest, where wind patterns send it up the island's Kona coast. Here, it becomes trapped by daytime (onshore) and nighttime (offshore) sea breezes (double-headed arrows). In contrast, when light "kona" winds (red arrows) blow, much of the vog is concentrated on the eastern side of the island, but some can even reach Oahu, more than 200 miles to the northwest.

29. GAS ADVISORY SYSTEM HELPS ALERT PEOPLE OF HAWAI‘I due to Volcano Smoke Particles Current ConditionsLast Updated:  04/07/2007  •  10:45 AM HST  Sulfur Dioxide  Good Moderate  Unhealthy SO2 gas plume crosses road near Halemaumau and low on Chain of Craters Road. Sensitive individuals should limit exposure in these areas.

30. The hydrochloric acid (HCl) comes from the breakdown of seawater-derived chlorides during sudden boiling. Because the lava is largely degassed by the time it reaches the sea, any HCL coming from it is insignificant by comparison. Analyzed samples of the plume show that is is a brine with a salinity of about 2.3 times that of seawater and a pH of 1.5-2.0. • Key seawater chloride breakdown reactions that produce HCl gas • MgCl2 (sea salt) + H2O (steam) = MgO (periclase) + 2HCl (HCl gas) • 2 NaCl (sea salt) + H2O (steam) = Na2O (sodium oxide) + 2 HCL (HCl gas) • CaCl2 (sea salt) + H2O (steam) = CaO (lime) + 2 HCL (HCl gas)

31. Volcanic Air Pollution—A Hazard in Hawai`i Health officials have warned people with asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, and allergies to stay indoors where there is air-conditioning or filtered air, to avoid strenuous exercise, and to drink lots of water. The vog can also affect children and the elderly. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs169-97/ Noxious sulfur dioxide gas and other pollutants emitted from Kilauea Volcano on the Island of Hawai`i react with oxygen and atmospheric moisture to produce volcanic smog (vog) and acid rain. Vog poses a health hazard by aggravating preexisting respiratory ailments, and acid rain damages crops and can leach lead into household water supplies. Much is still unknown about vog's composition and its effects on health. The U.S. Geological Survey's Hawaiian Volcano Observatory is closely monitoring gas emissions from Kilauea and working with health professionals and local officials to better understand volcanic air pollution and to enhance public awareness of this hazard.

32. Air pollution Pollution usually refers to the presence of substances that are either present in the environment where it doesn't belong or at levels greater than it should be. Air pollution is caused by any undesirable substance, which enters the atmosphere. Air pollution is a major problem in modern society. Even though air pollution is usually a greater problem in cities, pollutants contaminate air everywhere. These substances include various gases and tiny particles, or particulates that can harm human health and damage the environment. They may be gases, liquids, or solids. Many pollutants are given off into the air as a result of human behavior. Pollution occurs on different levels: personal, national, and global. Some pollutants come from natural sources. Forest fires emit particulates, gases, and VOCs (Volatile organic compounds and substances that vaporize into the atmosphere) Ultra-fine dust particles created by soil erosion when water and weather loosen layers of soil, increase airborne particulate levels. Volcanoes spew out sulfur dioxide and large amounts of pulverized lava rock known as volcanic ash and volcanic smoke particles.

33. No eruption of magma Long-lived (weeks-centuries) Low altitude - tropospheric (<5 km) Environmental/health hazard Climate impacts poorly understood Poorly quantified Passive Eruptive Reventador (Ecuador) Nyiragongo (DR Congo) • Magma erupted (ash) • Short-lived (hours-days) • High altitude - stratospheric (<40 km) • Aviation hazard (ash) • Global climate effects possible • Well quantified (TOMS)

34. Steam rises under a forbidding sky, as lava from the Piton de la Fournaise volcano drains into the Indian Ocean. The 2,632 meters (8,635 feet) mount, on Reunion Island, has erupted three times this year. The latest phase began on 2 April. The island, a French territory, neighbors Mauritius.

35. Stratospheric and tropospheric aerosol • Stratospheric aerosol • 11-50 km • Formation of sulfuric acid droplets by gas-to-particle conversion of SO2 injected into the stratosphere by major volcanic eruptions • Tropospheric aerosol • <11 km • Direct emissions from natural sources: desert, ocean, and vegetations • Gas-to-particle formation Natural Background Aerosol Eruption of Mt. Pinatubo (in the Philippines) in 1991 Do You Know… During the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo, 14-20 Tg (1 Tg= 106 tons) of SO2 was injected into the stratosphere, causing the aerosol concentration to increase from 2-5 µg/m3 to 20-100 µg/m3 Does tropospheric aerosol concentration vary with altitude? Why?

36. Net solar radiation at Mauna Loa Observatory, relative to 1958, showing the effects of major volcanic eruptions. Annual variations are due to transport of Asian dust and air pollution to Hawaii www.research.noaa.gov/climate/t_greenhouse.html

37. Volcanic Gas Emissions Volcanic Smoke Particles Vog

38. Contour map of volcanic air pollution in the Kau District, Big Island of Hawai'i, during September 2003. Eruption at Kilauea Volcano produces a visible plume from the eruption vent and degassing from the summit.

39. Hawaiian residents who live downwind from the long-active Kilauea volcano may have elevated risks of adverse health conditions because of high levels of sulfur dioxide and aerosol particulates that drift downwind, Eye irritation Headache Upper respiratory Irritation Nausea, dizziness Fatigue, lethargy Sore/dry throat Odor Memory impairment

40. Vog and acid rain affect water quality Many residents on the island of Hawaii depend on rainwater collected by rooftop catchment systems for drinking water. The continuous release of volcanic gases, especially sulfur dioxide, causes rainwater to become acidic downwind of Kilauea's erupting vents. When it falls on roofs, this acid rain leaches lead from roofing nails and paint. The lead-contaminated rainwater then fills the water catchment tanks, creating a health hazard.

41. Examples of volcanic gas compositions, in volume percent concentrations (from Symonds et. al., 1994)

42. A volcanic eruption may send ash and sulfate gas high into the atmosphere. The sulfate may combine with water to produce tiny droplets (aerosols) of sulfuric acid, which reflect sunlight back into space. Large eruptions reach the middle stratosphere (19 miles or 30 kilometers high). At this altitude, the aerosols can spread around the world.

43. The Earth's atmosphere is made up mostly of nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%), with a small amount of "trace gases" (1%) mixed in. But, that tiny percentage of trace gases - such as carbon dioxide, ozone, methane, and carbon monoxide - contribute in a big way to changes in the Earth's climate. Such trace gases, also called greenhouse gases, allow energy from the sun (known as shortwave radiation) to reach the earth's surface, but absorb energy emitted from the earth (known as longwave radiation); this affects the surface energy balance of the planet by warming the atmosphere directly above it resulting in long-term changes to global climate. Although a greenhouse also works by trapping energy from the sun, the physics is different. The roof of a greenhouse is a slab of glass that traps radiation emitted from the ground which prevents convection (i.e. rising hot air) from allowing heat to escape. The atmospheric greenhouse is based on certain molecules (e.g. carbon dioxide) absorbing radiation at particular wavelengths (such as that emitted from the ground) and reemitting a portion back to the ground. Although an excess of greenhouse gas results in global warming, naturally occurring greenhouse gases are beneficial in keeping our planet at a comfortable temperature.

44. Aerosols Small particles in the atmosphere - from smoke, dust, manufacturing, and other sources - can affect how the Earth system behaves. For example, aerosols can absorb and scatter radiation, which can cause either warming or cooling of the atmosphere. They also are important to the formation and behavior of clouds, and can influence the water cycle and the Earth's radiative balance.

45. Sierra Negra (Galapagos Is) eruption - October, 2005 22 Oct 2005 27 Oct 2005 • Effusive eruption • Oct 22 - Nov 1, 2005 23 Oct 2005

46. Topography • At night, cold, dense surface air drains downhill into low-lying areas, making them susceptible to strong temperature inversions • Hills and mountains can block flow (like Mauna Loa) • Sea breezes can trap pollution in its vertical circulation (East Maui)

47. A volcanic eruption may send ash and sulfuric acid (SO2) into the atmosphere, which increases planetary reflectivity causing atmospheric cooling. Over time precipitation will remove these aerosols from the atmosphere. Volcanic eruptions can have a worldwide impact. A massive volcanic eruption can cool the Earth for one or two years. The 1982 El Chichon eruption and the 1991 Pinatubo eruption caused the globally averaged surface temperature to cool less than 1°F

48. Acid Rain • Note that “clean” rain is naturally acidic (pH of 5.6) due to carbon dioxide in the atmosphere dissolving in the water to create carbonic acid H2O + CO2 —> H2CO3 • Other acids are created when pollution aerosols dissolve in water • Important acids created due to man’s activities are sulfuric acid and nitric acid

49. Sulfuric Acid Sulfur dioxide dissolves in water to create a weak acid, sulfurous acid SO2 + H2O —> H2SO3 Sulfurous acid then can react with oxygen to create sulfuric acid H2SO3+ O2 —> H2SO4 Once again, sulfur dioxide is emitted primarily by coal-burning power plants

50. Nitric Acid • Nitric acid is created when nitric oxide (NO) oxidizes, yielding nitrogen dioxide (NO2). The nitrogen dioxide then dissolves in water creating nitric acid (HNO3) and nitrous acid (HNO2) 2NO2 + H2O—> HNO3 + HNO3 • High temperature combustion, such as automobiles, produced the nitric oxide that began this process