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Robert K Merton. Latent and manifest functions, Conformity and deviance Reference groups. Theory of reference groups. Reference group It is a group to which you always refer to in order to evaluate your achievements/ role performance / aspirations/ and ambitions.
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Latent and manifest functions, • Conformity and deviance • Reference groups
Theory of reference groups Reference group • It is a group to which you always refer to in order to evaluate your achievements/ role performance/ aspirations/ and ambitions. • Both membership group and nonmembership groups can act as reference groups.
Concept of Relative Deprivation • “American Soldier”. :->Married soldier w.r.t. the unmarried soldier. Married soldier w.r.t. married civilians.
According to Merton: deprivation is not absolute, it depends on scale of measure and frame of reference. • (The married soldier is not asking what he gets, but what he is deprived of.)
Concept of group and group membership • Three characteristics of group and group membership: • 1. Frequency of interaction: People in the group frequently interact with each other.
2. Interacting persons define themselves as members. • Members of the group have patterned expectations or forms of interaction which are morally binding on members.
3. Persons in the group are defined by others as belonging to the group.
Group Vs. Collectives: All groups are collectives. But all collectives are not groups.
The collectives that lack the criteria of frequent interaction among members are not groups. • Nation is an example of collectives, and not of group.
Non-membership: Those who do not meet the criteria of frequency of interaction and of patterned expectations. • Non-membership can be of three types:
(a) Those who aspire for membership of the group :-> As per Merton, the NMG then becomes Positive Reference Group.
Alternatively, PRG is defined as the RG which one likes and takes seriously in order to shape one’s behaviour and evaluate one’s achievements and performance.
(b) Those who remain motivated to remain unaffiliated with the NMG: Then NMG = NRG. NRG is defined as RG which one dislikes and rejects.
Anticipatory Socialisation:-> Used in the context of non-membership RG. :-> It refers to preparing oneself for the group to which the individual aspires but does not belong.
It includes adopting the values and lifestyle of the non-membership reference group.
In a closed system, anticipatory socialisation can be dysfunctional too • If he is not admitted in the NMRG, then his anticipatory socialisation might lead to him being disliked by his own group.
As per Merton, he will be reduced to being a ‘marginal man’. • Merton says AS is functional in an open system, dysfunctional in a closed system.
Merton says Individual likely to feel more deprived in an open system, then a closed system.
Under what circumstances is non-membership group chosen as RG • 1. Capacity of the RG to confer prestige.
2. Isolates: Because of their sensitivity or rebelliousness or because of their intense urge for mobility do not remain content with the groups to which they belong.
As a result, they would be stimulated to adopt values of the NMG.
3. A social-system which encourages social mobility Will tend to make far widespread orientation to non-membership group as reference groups.
Non-conformity Vs. Deviance • It should not be equated with deviance, because: (a) Unlike a criminal, a non-conformist announces his dissent.
(b) The non-conformist challenges the legitimacy of norms and expectations and rejects them. • But a criminal does not have the courage to reject their legitimacy.
(c) The non-conformist believe they are gifted with a higher morality and want to alter the norms accordingly.
The fact that non-conformists ‘tend to elicit some measure of respect’ implies that the membership group begins to become uncertain about its norms and values.
The non-conformist’s conformity to the non membership group is the beginning of conflict and tension in membership group.
This initiates the possibility of change and conflict in their own membership group.
Role set • Merton says a particular social status involves not a single associated role. But an array of associated roles. This is called role-set.
An understanding of role-set is important because it makes you realise how difficult it is to satisfy everyone in the role set. • It is in this context that Merton speaks of structural sources of instability in the role-set. ****************
Mead: Self and Identity • Symbols • In Mead’s view, human thoughts, experiences and conducts are essentially social.
They are social due to the fact that human beings interact in terms of symbols – the most important of which are contained in the language.
Symbols provide the means using which humans can interact meaningfully with their natural and social environment. • Without symbols there would be no human interaction and no human society.
Symbolic interaction is necessary since humans have no instincts to direct their behaviour. • Therefore, in order to survive they must construct and live within a world of meaning.
A symbol doesn’t simply describes an object or an event. :-> It also indicates a response to it. For example: Chair, also indicates the line of action: sitting.
When they define an object, they exclude other possible meanings. • Symbols are human-made and refer not to the intrinsic nature of objects and events but to the ways in which people perceive them.
Role-taking • Symbols provide the means for interaction. But for a successful interaction to take place ‘role-taking’ is needed.
Mead says role-taking is a process where one person takes the role of another by imaginatively placing themselves in the position of people with whom they are interacting.
The self • Mead argued that through the process of role-taking, individuals develop a concept of ‘self’. • By placing themselves in the position of others they are able to look back upon themselves.
Mead claimed that the idea of a self can only develop if the individual can ‘get outside himself in such a way as to become an object to himself’.
The concept of self provides the basis for cooperative action in society. • Individuals become aware of what is expected of them and will tend to modify their actions accordingly.
From this perspective, thought becomes an inner conversation going on between this generalised other and the individual.
Thus people are constantly asking what other people will think and expect when they reflect upon themselves. • In this way, the conduct is regulated in terms of the expectation and attitude of others.
Mead distinguishes between two aspects of self: Me and I. • ME:->YOUR DEFINITION OF YOURSELF IN A SPECIFIC SOCIAL ROLE. For example: I might see myself as a ‘good parent‘ or a ‘good son’. • I:->YOUR OPINION OF YOURSELF AS A WHOLE.
The ‘I’ can also be called as the ‘SELF-CONCEPT’. It is built up from the reactions of others to you, and the way you interpret those reactions. • For example, if you see yourself as coward then you are unlikely to act in a difficult situation.
The notion of self is not inborn. It is learned during childhood. It has two main stages:
A. PLAY STAGE:->[LEARNING ROLE TAKING]Children play the roles that are not their own. For example, children may play being a parent, a doctor or a nurse.
:->In doing so they become aware that there is a difference between themselves and the role they are playing. • Through this the idea of the self is developed as the child takes the role of the other.
