Natural Product Chemistry B.Sc. [Biochem]

1. Natural Product ChemistryB.Sc. [Biochem] Course code 212 Section I

2. Section I • Natural Resources of Nepal:Eco-climatic division of Nepal; The biodiversity and its Economic strength • Species in trade: Plant genera in trade; Species in Export, import; & Re-trade As for example: Swertia, Nardostachys, Parmelia, Asparagus, Picrorhiza, Taxus, Daphne, Sapindus, Euphorbia, Zanthoxylum. Etc • Challenges in commercialization of plant resources: Quality management [raw material to finished products; Opportunity with plant resources]

3. Lecture 2 • Date: September 09,2005 • Topic: Eco-climatic division of Nepal:

4. Ecology and climate of a place is governed by the fact that where the place is located. Eco-climatic division of Nepal

5. Factors influencing Climate • Location: • Longitude • Latitude • Altitude from sea level • Mountains around • Ocean and sea around the place • Hot and cold water current of air and water

6. Nepal is located in Asia between 80°03” E to 88°10” E and 26°30”N to 30°26”N. This geographical location encompasses a portion of Himalayan range in the north and gangetic plane in south. The specific location spreads its geographical territory on either side of Himalayan range. Districts west to Rasuwa like Manang, Mustang, Dolpa, Mugu, Humla lie in the north of Himalayas. Location of Nepal

7. These mountains contribute a lot to climate of Nepal. Because of its specific location on earth, the country has wide altitudinal variation. The mountains are too cool some part even below -30°c; while the planes are much hotter some places above +30° c. Effects rain and river flow. Soil composition. Contribution of Mountain

8. Climate of Nepal

9. The rain in Nepal is mainly due to monsoon, which originates in Bay of Bengal and passes all the way as lead by the Himalayan range. It is cooled due low temperature of mountains and precipitates as rain. These rains are heavy in the eastern Nepal and as monsoon moves west, it becomes water deficient and there is low rain in the western Nepal. Rain in Nepal

10. These clouds are lead by wind and mountains. And are also blocked by the mountain range. The area trans to blockage falls in rain shadow zone. This is why districts west to Rasuwa like Manang, Mustang, Dolpa, Mugu, Humla which lie in the north of Himalayas have low rain. These physiographic processes have created different climatic zones in Nepal. Physiographic processes

11. In winter the rain is due to returning monsoon. It returns from Palmir- knot in Afghanistan. The clouds are more dry as they move east. Hence in winter western Nepal gets more rain. Winter rain direction

12. Altitudes also play major role in climate. Lower altitudes are more hot as they are more closer to equator. And are affected by hot land bridge. As the height increases pressure decreases, resulting cooling of air. Thus high altitudes are cold. Altitudes & Climate

13. Lecture 3 CLIMATE TYPES AND ITS SPECIFIC FEATURE: • Sub-tropical climate: • Warm temperature climate: • Cool temperate climate: • Alpine ‘Lekali’ climate: • Himalayan desert climate

14. Sub-tropical climate: • This climate is seen in southern planes of the country earth at present, which has an altitude between 60m to 1200m. They include Terai, Bhawar, Chure, and inner terai; it can also be observed in Besi, Tar, and khonch. Some part of the country with low altitudes is too hot, while others are humid semitropical climate. This climate is found up to 1200m. Climatologically speaking this is sub-tropical but for Nepal, this is tropical. Summer temperature in this zone ranges from 25°c to 40°c. The climate has hot waves in summer. • Western terai districts like Kanchanpur, Kailali, Bardiya, Banke, valleys of Dang and Surkhet, Kapilbastu, Rupandehi are among hot compared to eastern districts like Saptari and Morang and Jhapa. • Rain is due to monsoon, which originates in the Bay of Bengal and enters from east form where it extends to west where upon it gradually desiccates and western terai has low rain in summer. • When the monsoon returns from Hinudkush in the winter, the winter rain prevails. The winter rain is more in west than in the east.

15. Flora of Sub-tropical climate: • The terai has over 200mm rain. • Accacia, Adina, Alastonia, Annona, Bombax, Bamboo, cassia, ceaselpinea, Cinnamomum, Eagle, Ficus, Hollorhena, Mallotus, melia, Nerium, Oroxylon, Phyllanthus, Sapindus, Shorea, Dalbergia, Strychnos, Tamarind, Terminalia are the major the major tree genera of this climate, while Mucuna, Dioscorea, Gloriosa, Gymnema are the major climbers in this climate. • Adhatoda, Basil, Cassia, Lantana, Pogostemon, Pandanus constitute the major shrubs and Acorus, Amorphophyllus, Andrographis, Asparagus, Bacopa, Boerhavia, Eclipta, Eulophia, Phyllanthus Swertia, Vinca, Vetiver Withania are some of the typical herbs found in this climate.

16. Warm temperature climate: • This climate prevails in the Mahabharat range from 1200m to 2100 m .The summer temperature is ranges between 24°c to 30°c while the winter temperature falls up to 0°c depending on altitude. River basins are hot and humid. • The valleys like Kathmandu fall in a climate where summer days reaches up to 33°c and cool winter night are as low as minus 3°c. • In the southern face of the Mahabharat range, there is heavy rain up to 125 cm, while on the northern side of the range the rain is relatively low only up to 100 cm.

17. Flora of Warm temperature climate: • Accacia, Adina, Bombax, Bamboo, cassia, Cinnamomum, Eagle, Ficus, Mallotus, Phyllanthus, Sapindus, Terminalia are the major the major tree genera of this climate, while Mucuna, Dioscorea, are the major climbers in this climate. • Basil, Cassia, Lantana, Pogostemon, constitute the major shrubs and Acorus, Asparagus, Swertia, Vinca, are some of the typical herbs found in this climate. • This is the climate range where most of the mountainous caste lives.

18. Cool temperate climate: • The Himalayan climate above 2100m to 3300m is quite contrasting to tropical climate of the terai. Various districts that lie between south of Himalayas and Mahabharat range are in this climate zone. They include Taplejung, Panchthar, Sankhuwasbha, Ramechap, Dolkha, in the East and Rasuwa, Dhadhing, Gorkha, Lamjung, Parbat in the west represent such districts. With the exception of river basin with low altitude and small valley in the range the whole of the above districts are in cool temperate climate zone. • The summer temperature in these districts ranges between 15°c to 20°c. They have near zero°c temperature in the winter. They have snowfall in the winter. • Rain is mainly due to monsoon but only up to 100 cm. The rain is high in the south and in the east and comparatively lower in the north and west. Districts in this climate zone have cool and windy days and nights in the winter.

19. Flora of Cool temperate climate: • The tree species present are Pinus, Rhododendron, Quercus, Daphnephyllum, Abies, and Tsuga • Among the Medicinal plant, several important traded species of Nepal such as Rhubarb, Aconitum, Asparagus, Gaultheria, and Pseudo-panax are collected from this climate zone.

20. Alpine ‘Lekali’ climate: • The Himalayan range above 3300m to 5000m is in this climate zone. This climate is similar to climate of Alps in Europe and there fore called alpine climate. The nine-month of the year is snow laden. The snow melts in summer months. The summer temperature ranges between 10°c to 15°c. The Rain is below 40 cm. • Tree species of the zone are Cedrus, Junipers, Cuperessus, Larix, Hipophae, and Taxus. Some of the high value medicinal plants like Cordyceps, Aconitum, Picrorhiza; Nardostachys, Ephedra, Onsoma, Rheum, Carum, are collected from this climate zone.

21. Himalayan desert climate: • The altitude above 5000m i.e. above snowline is laden with snow all the year round and are not suitable for any vegetation not even lichen can grow here. Because the typically ice laden characters round the year like polar region it is also called third pole.

22. The earth was formed from a solar cloud of Hydrogen under gravitation. Earth’s first rock was formed over 3500 million year ago. Different continent of the earth was a single landmass by that time. This single landmass; according to continental drift theory of Alfred Wagener (1915) split into Laurasia and gondwana land. The Gondwana land further split into India, Antarctica and Australia. The evolution of earth:

23. The sediments of shallow sea “Tethys Sea” between Africa and Tibetan plateau raised due to drift of India and Africa northward. The Himalayan range emerged due to this drift. A radical idea of plate tectonics assumes that the earth is made of series of rigid crusts called plates. These plates are moved by convection current within the surface of earth. These plates diverge and converge along margins, which is marked by earthquakes and volcanoes. Molten lava within pushes plates up, by which mountains and ranges are formed. Formation of Ocean, Mountains and rivers:

24. The formation of mountains and ridges took years. The rain and other denudation processes went on. The soft-top soils were carried and deposited at riverbeds. The terai of to day is made up of such alluvial soils brought and deposited by river Ganges and its sisters. Moreover, whole of terai except Dang, and Chitwan is made up of such alluvial soils The soil:

25. Sub Himalayan basin /dun of northern Dang, Northern rauthat, Northern Sarlahi is made of Alluvial soils brought by respective rivers. Lesser Himalayan Fluvial soils of Kathmandu valley and northwestern Tanahun are conglomerates and lacustrine clay. Lower part of sivaliks in Kanchanpur, Kailali, and peripheral Dang is made up of marine shells and limestone and fluvial soils. South of Salyan, Rolpa, Pyuthan, North of Palpa, Nawalaparashi are mainly shallow marine sediments phyllites, sandstone, and quartzite. The soil:

26. Soils of Myagdi, Kaski, and Lamjung are flyschoid sequences of bedded schist, phyllites and Meta sandstone. Several mountain districts are rich in high-grade metamorphic rocks; these districts include Dolkha, north Ramechap, Solu and other eastern districts. Thus, what we see that the soils of Nepal are made up of various types of rocks, which in course of time denudated contributed to the formation of different soil structures of the country. The soil:

27. The difference lies not only in names of its component rocks but also in its chemical compositions and presence or absence of micro-components like individual elements. They also contribute to water holding capacity of the soils. The soil composition has immense impact on growth or flourishing of individual plant species. Impact of soil on flourishing of individual plant species.

28. If a soil structure is suitable for a species of plant, it may or may not provide enough nutrients to other plant species. Impact of soil on flourishing of individual plant species.

29. Lecture 4BIODIVERSITY • Biodiversity = Bio [= plants animals] + diversity [= variances, multiplicity, difference, dissimilarity] • Ecosystem level • Species level • Genetic level [Chemo-type level]

30. Ecosystem level: • In our earlier lectures, we talked on how the physiography of Nepal has significant impact on its climates; and how the origin of the mountain ranges and river-system created different soil condition within small area of the country. • These differences in climate, water availability, soil composition and the soil moisture, create different ecosystem in the different part of the country.

31. Species level Diversity : • Living beings capable of breeding mutually are called species. Species diversity means number and frequency of different species in an area. The earth is expected to in habit from 5,000000 to 3 0,000000 species of living beings (Wilson, 1988). • Richness in diversity means total number of different species in particular area while • The term relative abundance indicates availability of one species compared to the other. • The dominant species means the species which out numbers other species. • Example cited from Class / village. • Community forest where tree species having timber values are kept and other bushy and thorny species are taken out cannot be considered rich in diversity. • Thus, Richness in diversity implies proportionate growth of all potential species in the area.

32. Ecosystem • Stainton (1972) classified the country in to seven different ecosystem as follows: • Terai and Bhawar. • Siwalik, and Dun valley. • Mahabharat. • Mid lands • Himalyas. • Inner Himalayas • Arid zones

33. Ecosystem • Terai and Bhawar. Southern part of the country adjoining Indian Territory in the south and siwalik range in the north is called Terai. Its altitude varies from 60 m from sea level to 300 m. Forest zone called “charkose jhari” in the area was once very rich and diverse in tropical plant diversity. • Siwalik, and Dun valley. This lies between north of terai and south of Mahabharat range.The altitude of this ecosystem is between 300 m to 1500 m. The range is wide in the western Nepal and less wider in the east. Chitwan,Dang and trijuga are inner terai valley of Nepal. They are sloppy and fertile.

34. Ecosystem • Mahabharat. Mahabharat is the range spread east to west in north of Siwalik and south of mid land. The altitudes ranges from 1500 m to 2700 m. River like Bagmati, Babai flow through it. • Mid lands: this ecosystem prevails in the north of Siwalik and Mahabharat and south of Himalyas. Altitude ranges from 600m to 3500 m. Kthmandu, Pokhara, Banepa are located in this zone. This is densely populated next to terai. The climate here is more appropriate and land is fertile.

35. Ecosystem • Himalyas. High mountains like Saipal, Lhotse, Machpuchre, Annapurna, Choyu, Manaslu, Makalu, , Sagarmatha, Kanchanjungha range are located here. The altitudes above 5500 m are snow laden and are devoid of flora. • Inner Himalayas: The trans Himalayan districts like Humla, Jumla, Manang, Mustng, can also be considered inner Himalayas. Plants species like Taxus, Abies, Tsuga, and Rhododendron are found here. • Arid zones: Some part of Dolpa, Manang, and Mustang are part of Tibetan plateau and the climate here is arid.

36. Plant Diversity of Nepal

37. Genetic level: • Gene is the smallest entity present in DNA that carries parental character to the progeny. Genetic diversity indicates differences in arrangement of genes in the chromosomes. This leads to differentiation of brothers and sisters from among their sisters. • Example: there are different types of rice in Nepal such as Kuriya, Basmati, Anandi, Thapchininya, Marsi, Chomrong etc. • This not only creates morphological variances among the progenies but also its content and composition. • To a chemist the genetic variation is significant because it differentiates the chemical composition from among the plant of same species

38. ARTEMISIA SPECIES IN NEPAL • Artemisia albida Willd.ex Ledeb. • Artemisia biennis Willd. • Artemisia caurifolia • Artemisia capillaris Thunb. • Artemisia dubia Wall. • = vulgaris • Artemisia gmelinii var. vestita (Wall.ex DC.) • = Artemisia vestita (Wall.ex DC.)Artemisia gmelinii var. minor (Ledeb.)= Artemisia sacrorum Ledeb.

39. ARTEMISIA SPECIES IN NEPAL • Artemisia indica =vulgaris • Artemisia indica var. canadensis Besser • Artemisia indica var. orientalis (Pamp.) H.Hara • Artemisia indica Willd. • Artemisia japonica Thunb.Artemisia juncea Kar. & Kir.Artemisia maritima Linn.Artemisia moorcroftiana Wall.Artemisia myrianthArtemisia parviflora Buch.-Ham.ex Roxb.Artemisia roxburghiana Bess.Artemisia siversiana Ehrh.ex Willd.Artemisia vulgaris Burm.f. = indica

40. Lecture 5 • We have seen that in a small area of Nepal, we have quite good number of plant species as high as 62834 plants (so far known), stay alive. • These species are in continuous threat of extinction due to changes in ecology, Climate and human intervention. • In the late twentieth century, it was realized that if no attention is paid on these changes, existence of future generation will be impossible.

41. Convention of Biodiversity • At the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, world leaders agreed on a comprehensive strategy for "sustainable development" -- meeting our needs while ensuring that we leave a healthy and viable world for future generations. • One of the key agreements adopted at Rio was the Convention on Biological Diversity. This pact among the vast majority of the world's governments sets out commitments for maintaining the world's ecological underpinnings as we go about the business of economic development. • The Convention establishes three main goals:

42. three main goals Of CBD • Conservation of biological diversity, • Sustainable use of its components, • Fair and equitable sharing of the benefits from the use of genetic resources. Representatives of 155 countries agreed this document to achieve the common goal of sustainable development.

43. CBD articles • There are 21 articles in the document. These articles are further sub articles. These article explain the process by which the world can achieve the above goals.

44. Nature Conservation & IUCN Nepal • International Union of Conservation Nature [IUCN] Nepal enlisted all the plant and animal species, which are under threat or at the verge of extinction in its “red list”. It has also published some books such as “Rare and endangered plants of Nepal” and "National Register of Medicinal plants " second edition. • These books enlist plants, which are under threat, and especially the "National Register of Medicinal plants " second edition tried to enlist are which has been traditionally used in Nepal. • The book claims to serve the purpose of Article 15,16 and 19 of “Convention Of Biological Diversity [CBD]”. Hence, we have tried to aware our colleagues on CBD Article 15,16 and 19.

45. Article 15 [Access to genetic resources] • 1. Recognizing the sovereign rights of States over their natural resources, the authority to determine access to genetic resources rests with the national governments and is subject to national legislation. • 2. Each Contracting Party shall endeavor to create conditions to facilitate access to genetic resources for environmentally sound uses by other Contracting Parties and not to impose restrictions that run counter to the objectives of this Convention. • 3. For the purpose of this Convention, the genetic resources being provided by a Contracting Party, as referred to in this Article and • Articles 16 and 19 are only those that are provided by Contracting Parties that are countries of origin of such resources or by the Parties that have acquired the genetic resources in accordance with this Convention. • 4. Access, where granted, shall be on mutually agreed terms and subject to the provisions of this Article.

46. Article 15 • 5. Access to genetic resources shall be subject to prior informed consent of the Contracting Party providing such resources, unless otherwise determined by that Party. • 6. Each Contracting Party shall endeavor to develop and carry out scientific research based on genetic resources provided by other Contracting Parties with the full participation of, and where possible in, such Contracting Parties. • 7. Each Contracting Party shall take legislative, administrative or policy measures, as appropriate, and in accordance with Articles 16 and 19 and, where necessary, through the financial mechanism established by Articles 20 and 21 with the aim of sharing in a fair and equitable way the results of research and development and the benefits arising from the commercial and other utilization of genetic resources with the Contracting Party providing such resources; Such sharing shall be upon mutually agreed terms.

47. Lecture 6 Article 16: Access to and transfer of technology • 1. Each Contracting Party, recognizing that technology includes biotechnology, and that both access to and transfer of technology among Contracting Parties are essential elements for the attainment of the objectives of this Convention, undertakes subject to the provisions of this Article to provide and/or facilitate access for and transfer to other Contracting Parties of technologies that are relevant to the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity or make use of genetic resources and do not cause significant damage to the environment.

48. Article 16: Access to and transfer of technology • Access to and transfer of technology referred to in paragraph 1 above to developing countries shall be provided and/or facilitated under fair and most favorable terms, including on concessional and preferential terms where mutually agreed, and, where necessary, in accordance with the financial mechanism established by Articles 20 and 21. In the case of technology subject to patents and other intellectual property rights, such access and transfer shall be provided on terms, which recognize and are consistent with the adequate and effective protection of intellectual property rights. The application of this paragraph shall be consistent with paragraphs 3, 4 and 5 below. • 3.Each Contracting Party shall take legislative, administrative or policy measures, as appropriate, with the aim that Contracting Parties, in particular those that are developing countries, which provide genetic resources are provided access to and transfer of technology which makes use of those resources, on mutually agreed terms, including technology protected by patents and other intellectual property rights, where necessary, through the provisions of Articles 20 and 21 and in accordance with international law and consistent with paragraphs 4 and 5 below.

49. Article 16: Access to and transfer of technology • 4. Each Contracting Party shall take legislative, administrative or policy measures, as appropriate, with the aim that the private sector facilitates access to, joint development and transfer of technology referred to in paragraph 1 above for the benefit of both governmental institutions and the private sector of developing countries and in this regard shall abide by the obligations included in paragraphs 1, 2 and 3 above. • 5. The Contracting Parties, recognizing that patents and other intellectual property rights may have an influence on the implementation of this Convention, shall cooperate in this regard subject to national legislation and international law in order to ensure that such rights are supportive of and do not run counter to its objectives.

50. Article 19: Handling of biotechnology and distribution of its benefits • 1. Each Contracting Party shall take legislative, administrative or policy measures, as appropriate, to provide for the effective participation in biotechnological research activities by those Contracting Parties, especially developing countries, which provide the genetic resources for such research, and where feasible in such Contracting Parties. • 2. Each Contracting Party shall take all practicable measures to promote and advance priority access on a fair and equitable basis by Contracting Parties, especially developing countries, to the results and benefits arising from biotechnology based upon genetic resources provided by those Contracting Parties. Such access shall be on mutually agreed terms.