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Understanding Earthquakes: Causes and Impacts

Learn about earthquakes, from deformation and fault types to seismology and locating epicenters. Discover the science behind these natural disasters.

MikeCarlo
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Understanding Earthquakes: Causes and Impacts

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  1. Earthquakes

  2. What is an earthquake? • An earthquake is the vibration of Earth produced by the rapid release of energy • Energy radiates in all directions from its source, the focus • Energy moves like waves • Seismographs record the event

  3. Deformation • Deformation is a general term that refers to all changes in the original form and/or size of a rock body • Most crustal deformation occurs along plate margins • Deformation involves • Stress—Force applied to a given area

  4. Deformation • How rocks deform • General characteristics of rock deformation • Elastic deformation—The rock returns to nearly its original size and shape when the stress is removed • Once the elastic limit (strength) of a rock is surpassed, it either flows (ductile deformation) or fractures (brittle deformation)

  5. Folds • During crustal deformation rocks are often bent into a series of wave-like undulations called folds • Characteristics of folds • Most folds result from compressional stresses which shorten and thicken the crust

  6. Folds • Common types of folds • Anticline—Upfolded or arched rock layers • Syncline—Downfolds or troughs of rock layers • Depending on their orientation, anticlines and synclines can be described as • Symmetrical, asymmetrical, or recumbent(an overturned fold)

  7. Anticlines and Synclines Figure 6.20

  8. Faults • Faultsare fractures in rocks along which appreciable displacement has taken place • Sudden movements along faults are the cause of most earthquakes • Classified by their relative movement which can be • Horizontal, vertical, or oblique

  9. Normal Fault Figure 6.24 A

  10. Reverse Fault Figure 6.24 B

  11. Strike-Slip fault Figure 6.24 D

  12. Earthquakes and faults • Earthquakes are associated with faults • Motion along faults can be explained by plate tectonics

  13. Elastic rebound • Mechanism for EQ’s explained by H. Reid • Rocks on sides of fault are deformed by tectonic forces • Rocks bend and store elastic energy • Frictional resistance holding the rocks together is overcome by tectonic forces

  14. Elastic rebound • Earthquake mechanism • Slips starts at the weakest point (the focus) occurs • Earthquakes occur as the deformed rock “springs back” to its original shape (elastic rebound)

  15. Elastic Rebound Movie in Mapview

  16. Reid elastic rebound cartoon

  17. Aftershocks The change in stress that follows a mainshock creates smaller earthquakes called aftershocks The aftershocks “illuminate” the that ruptured in the mainshock Red dots show location of aftershocks formed by 3 earthquakes in Missouri and Tennessee in 1811/1812

  18. Normal Fault Quake - Nevada Strike Slip Fault Quake - Japan Strike Slip Fault Quake - California

  19. San Andreas: An active earthquake zone • San Andreas is the most studied fault system in the world • Displacement occurs along discrete segments 100 to 200 kilometers long • Most segments slip every 100-200 years producing large earthquakes • Some portions exhibit slow, gradual displacement known as fault creep

  20. Fence offset by the 1906 San Francisco earthquake

  21. Seismology Seismometers - instruments that record seismic waves • Records the movement of Earth in relation to a stationary mass on a rotating drum or magnetic tape

  22. A seismograph designed to record vertical ground motion

  23. Motion of a seismograph

  24. Types of seismic waves • Surface waves • Complex motion, great destruction • High amplitude and low velocity • Longest periods (interval between crests) • Termed long, or L waves

  25. Types of seismic waves • Body waves • Travel through Earth’s interior • Two types based on mode of travel • Primary (P) waves • Push-pull motion • Travel thru solids, liquids & gases • Secondary (S) waves • Moves at right angles to their direction of travel • Travels only through solids

  26. P-Wave Motion

  27. S-Wave Motion

  28. Locating the source of earthquakes Focus - the place within Earth where earthquake waves originate Epicenter – location on the surface directly above the focus • Epicenter is located using the difference in velocities of P and S waves

  29. Earthquake focus and epicenter

  30. Locating the epicenter of an earthquake • Three seismographs needed to locate an epicenter • Each station determines the time interval between the arrival of the first P wave and the first S wave at their location • A travel-time graph then determines each station’s distance to the epicenter

  31. Graph used to find distance to epicenter

  32. Locating the epicenter of an earthquake • A circle with radius equal to distance to the epicenter is drawn around each station • The point where all three circles intersect is the earthquake epicenter

  33. Epicenter located using three seismographs

  34. Earthquake belts • 95% of energy released by earthquakes originates in narrow zones that wind around the Earth • These zones mark of edges of tectonic plates

  35. Locations of earthquakesfrom 1980 to 1990

  36. Depths of Earthquakes • Earthquakes originate at depths ranging from 5 to nearly 700 kilometers • Definite patterns exist • Shallow focus occur along oceanic ridges • Deep earthquakes occur in western Pacific east of oceanic trenches

  37. Earthquake in subduction zones

  38. Measuring the size of earthquakes • Two measurements describe the size of an earthquake • Intensity – a measure of earthquake shaking at a given location based on amount of damage • Magnitude – estimates the amount of energy released by the earthquake

  39. Intensity scales • Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale was developed using California buildings as its standard • Drawback is that destruction may not be true measure of earthquakes actual severity

  40. Magnitude scales • Richter magnitude - concept introduced by Charles Richter in 1935 • Richter scale • Based on amplitude of largest seismic wave recorded • Each unit of Richter magnitude corresponds to 10X increase in wave amplitude and 32X increase in energy

  41. Magnitudes scales • Moment magnitude was developed because Richter magnitude does not closely estimate the size of very large earthquakes • Derived from the amount of displacement that occurs along a fault and the area of the fault that slips

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