Part Three: Political Structures/Institutions

1. Part Three: Political Structures/Institutions “Our political institutions work remarkably well. They are designed to clang against each other. The noise is democracy at work.” -- Michael Novak (American philosopher)

2. Levels of Government • Supranational Organizations – organizations in which nations are not totally sovereign actors • International or regional • Trend towards states pooling their sovereignty to gain political, economic or social clout • Examples? • Growing because of globalization

3. Levels of Government • Unitary System • Concentrates all policymaking powers in one geographic place • Central government is responsible for most policies • Most countries have unitary • Federal System • Power divided between the central government & sub-units • Regional bodies have significant powers (taxation, lawmaking, keeping order) • Confederal • Power spread among many sub-units (states for example) • Weak central government • EU

4. Levels of Government • Discussion Questions: • What are the advantages of a federal system over a unitary one? • What are the disadvantages of a federal system over a unitary one?

5. Levels of Government • Advantages of Federal System: • Makes it easier to govern a very large country (physically largest countries tend to have fed arrangements – not China though) • Better accommodates regional differences • Helps guard against concentration of political power • Disadvantages: • Lack of uniformity in policy (ex: voting registration requirements, education requirements) • If territorial lines of subunits correspond to deep social divisions, federalism reinforces those divisions

6. Devolution • Sometimes, leaders of unitary systems voluntarily choose to decentralize power • Called devolution – transfer of power from a central govt to lower/regional govt • Why would they do this?

7. Three Causes of Devolution • Ethnic Forces • Identity based on language, religion, customs • Ethnonationalism • See themselves as a distinct nation with a right to autonomy • Example? • Economic Forces • Regional inequalities in income or standard of living • Spatial Forces • Usually occur on the margins/borders of the state • Esp if water/mountains separate from central power and neighbor nations support separation

8. Devolution • Discussion Question: How is devolution in a unitary system different from Federalism?

9. Devolution • Discussion Question: How is devolution in a unitary system different from Federalism? • Power can be takenaway in a unitary system (by the central government) • Subnational government’s powers are not constitutionallyprotected • In a unitary system decentralization is not necessarily symmetrical • Local legislature/government can be dissolved in unitary systems but not in federal systems

10. Political Institutions • Structures of the political system • Carry out the work of governing • Vary by country • Common structures that exist in most countries are legislatures, executives, judicial systems, bureaucracies, and armies • Discussion Question: Does the same type of institution (say legislatures) serve the same function in two different countries?

11. Example - Legislatures Vary in Importance

12. Separation/Fusion of Powers • Separation of Powers: • the system of governance in which gov’t power is divided into several bodies with the ability to check the power of the other • Fusion of Powers: • A system of governance in which all or most of the authority of the gov’t is concentrated in one body

13. Discussion Question • Is separation of powers necessary for a liberal democracy to exist?

14. Executive Office • Carries out the laws & policies of the state • Head of State • Symbolizes and represents the people • May or may not have policymaking power • Head of Government • In charge of actually running the government • The Chief Executive • Most important person in policymaking • Varies by government • The Cabinet • Most important decision making body in parliamentary systems

15. Parliamentary vs. Presidential Systems • Parliamentary Systems • Citizens vote for legislative reps, which pick leader of executive branch from majority party (UK) • Head of State = mostly symbolic figurehead • Head of Gov’t = day to day (PM, Premier, Chancellor) • Fusion of powers between executive & legislative branches • Cabinet members = leaders of majority party in Parliament • Chief executive usually does not have veto power • Irregular intervals between elections* and votes of confidence *UK no longer has irregular interval btw elections; Fixed at 5 year terms

16. Parliamentary vs. Presidential Systems • Presidential Systems • Citizens vote for legislative reps and executive branch leaders (Mexico, Nigeria + Iran – dual exec) • President – both Head of State & Head of Gov’t • Separation of powers/System of checks and balances • President picks cabinet members • President can veto • Fixed Terms • Semi-Presidential Systems • Prime Minister and President Coexist (Russia, China)

17. Parliamentary vs. Presidential Systems • Discussion Question: What are the advantages and disadvantages for each system?

18. Parliamentary vs. Presidential Systems • Parliamentary: • Advantages: efficiency in passing legislation, clearer accountability to voters • Disadvantages: instability, hasty decision-making • Presidential: • Adv: checks power of legislature; since directly elected, more of a national mandate • Disadv: difficulty removing unpopular president until next election, gridlock!, creeping authoritarianism • Semi Pres: • Adv: shields pres from criticism (can blame on PM), can remove unpopular PM and maintain stability from pres. fixed term, additional checks and balances • Disadv: confusion about accountability, confusing and inefficient legislation

19. Legislatures • Branch that makes laws • Bicameral • Two houses (US, UK) • Advantages? • Disadvantages? • Unicameral • One house (China, Iran) • Advantages? • Disadvantages?

20. Judiciaries • Judiciary: the set of institutions that are created to • Interpret the application of public laws and policies • Settle public disputes in the nation-state • Enforce criminal law • If it is functioning ideally, the judiciary plays a large role in maintaining rule of law • Rule of Law: constitutionalism; a governance system operating predictably under a known and transparent set of procedural rules (laws)

21. Judiciaries • Vary significantly from country to country • Courts in authoritarian systems generally have little/no independence; decisions controlled by chief exec. • Constitutional Courts • Highest judicial body, rules on constitutionality of laws • Judicial review • Power of the judiciary to review laws and executive actions for their constitutionality

22. Bureaucracies • Agencies that implement government policy • In democracies • Discretionary power • Continuity over time • In authoritarian regimes • Head of government exercises control • Patronage system

23. Common Characteristics of Bureaucracies • Non-elected positions • Impersonal, efficient structures • Formal qualifications for jobs • Hierarchical organization • Red tape/inefficiency

24. Other Institutions • Military • Armed forces that are used to protect the nation-state against possible or actual invasion by the military forces of other nations • Also used to maintain the power of the gov’t within the nation-state’s borders • Also used to project the power of the nation-state beyond its borders by displays of military might and technology • Intelligence Agencies • Most countries operate domestic & international intelligence • In recent times expanded to include cyber intelligence

25. Part Three (continued): Electoral Systems & Linkage Institutions “Our political institutions work remarkably well. They are designed to clang against each other. The noise is democracy at work.” -- Michael Novak (American philosopher)

26. Electoral Systems • Rules that decide how votes are • Cast • Counted • Translated into seats in a legislature

27. Electoral Systems (Plurality/FPTP) • Plurality(Used by U.S.) • Also called “First Past the Post” (FPTP); Winner takes all • Winner must get more votes than anyone else • Does NOT require a majority to win* • Single member districts (SMD) – candidates compete for a single representative’s seat (voters choose 1) • Encourages large, broad-based parties • Why?

28. Electoral Systems (Plurality/FPTP) • Plurality systems encourage large, broad-based parties because… • no matter how many people run in a district, the person with the largest # of votes wins • this encourages parties to become larger, spreading their “umbrellas” to embrace more voters • Parties without big groups of voters supporting them have little hope of winning • The Problems with First Past the Post Voting Explained - YouTube

29. Electoral Systems • Proportional Representation (PR)(Russia currently) • Creates multi-member districts • More than one legislative seat in each district • Ballots are cast for a party, not an individual • Open vs closed list - Open – people pick; Closed – party picks • Percentage of votes a party gets determines # of seats • Encourages multiple parties

30. Electoral Systems (PR) • Discussion Question: Why do PR Electoral Systems encourage a multi-party system?

31. Electoral Systems (PR) • Discussion Question: Why do PR Electoral Systems encourage a multi-party system? • Pure form encourages a large # of small parties because they have a good chance of getting some of their candidates elected • This could lead to high # of parties with 1 seat (1%), so most set a threshold • Threshold – minimum % of vote that a party must receive in order to secure even one seat in the legislature • Usual threshold is 5% (Israel has lowest – only 2%)

32. Electoral Systems • Discussion Question: What are the advantages of PR Electoral Systems? • Discussion Question: What are the disadvantages of PR Electoral Systems?

33. Electoral Systems • Discussion Question: What are the advantages of PR Electoral Systems? • Minority interests are represented • Women are more likely to be elected to office • Emphasis on ideas over personalities • Discussion Question: What are the disadvantages of PR Electoral Systems? • Too many small parties with disproportionate importance • PR facilitates extremist parties

34. Electoral Systems • Mixed system(Mexico) • Combines first past the post & proportional • Some # of seats are single-member & some are proportional • Mixed-Member Proportional Representation Explained - YouTube

35. Types of Elections • Election of public officials • Referendum • Votes on policy issues • Examples? • Plebiscite • A non-binding vote to gauge public opinion on an issue • Initiative • Vote on a policy initiated by the people

36. Linkage Institutions • Connect (“link”) the government to its citizens • Political parties • Interest groups • Media

37. Linkage Institutions – Political Parties • Political Parties • Functions? • One-Party System • Communist States • One-Party Dominant System • Mexico during most of 20th cent (PRI domination) • Russia (United Russia)

38. Linkage Institutions – Political Parties • Two-party system • The most rare system • Two-and-a-Half Party System? • Third party that influences which of two major parties get in power • Multi-party systems • Most common • Found in parliamentary systems commonly

39. Interest Groups • Organizations of like-minded people • Want to influence & shape public policy • Often have a great deal in common with political parties • Discussion Question: How are interest groups different from political parties?

40. Interest Groups • Differences: • Parties influence govt primarily through the electoral process (run candidates); Interest groups often support candidates, but do not run their own candidates. • Parties generate and support a broad spectrum of policies; interest groups support one or a few related policies.

41. Interest Groups • Evaluate in terms of how much autonomy they have • Authoritarian (“transmission belts”) • Democracies • Pluralism • Corporatism • Pluralism • Power is split among many groups

42. Interest Groups • Corporatism • Fewer groups compete, usually one for each interest sector (labor, ag) • Two Types: • State Corporatism • State determines which groups are brought in • Neocorporatism • Interest groups take the lead and dominate the state

43. Interest Group Strength: Autonomy From the State Less Autonomy More Autonomy Interest Groups as “Transmission Belts” Interest Group Pluralism Corporatism State and interest group autonomy mixed Autonomy from the state No autonomy From the state

44. Part Four: Citizens, Society & the State “I was in civil society long before I was ever in politics or my husband was ever even elected president.” – Hillary Clinton (American politician)

45. Politics of Social Cleavages • Most societies are split along one or more fault lines. These splits, or social cleavages, become fault lines along which political views form… categories of identity that create “us/them” divisions in society

46. Social Cleavages • Definition • Factors that separate groups within a society • Considerations: • What are the types of social cleavages? • How are cleavages expressed in the political system? • Do multiple cleavages lead to more or less division?

47. Bases/Types of Social Cleavages • Social Class • Marx Thought social class was the total determinant of political orientation however other factors determine a true breakdown • Examples? • Ethnic Cleavages • Based on different cultural identities, including religion/language • Most divisive and explosive • Examples? • Religious Cleavages • Closely intertwined with ethnicity • Examples? • Regional Cleavages • Involves competition for jobs, money and development projects • Examples?

48. Some examples • Bases of Social Cleavages: • What mix of social classes, ethnic/racial groups, religions and languages does a country have? • How deep are they – to what degree do they separate ppl from one another? • Which cleavages have the most impact on the political system? • Social Class: • Class awareness has declined in industrial and post-industrial societies but still is a cleavage • GB – traditionally middle class voters have supported Conservative Party and working-class have supported Labour Party • LDC – class tensions btw landless peasants and property owners • India – vestiges of old caste system • Ethnic: • Examples – civil wars in former Yugoslavia, Russia (Chechnya), Nigeria (Biafra) • Religious: • Northern Ireland – Irish Nationalists = strong Catholics, loyalists = strong Protestants • Iran and Iraq (Shiite/Sunni) • May also exist among people of similar ethnic backgrounds (ex: in U.S. between fundamentalist and non-fundamentalist Christians) • Regional: • Nigeria – ec. Inequalities resulted in regional conflicts and the secession of Biafra and civil war