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Unit Two: Writing Effective Paragraphs • It consists of several related sentences, and deals with one controlling idea. • This controlling idea is called the topic or the theme of the paragraph. • The main function of a paragraph is to develop, support, exemplify, or explain this theme. • There is no rule for the length of paragraphs. Structure of a Paragraph 1. The introduction: It briefly states the content of the paragraph, and enables a reader to establish his/her expectation of what is to come. 2. The body: Itis the main part of a paragraph. It has many sentences which explain the main idea of the paragraph in detail. 3.The conclusion: it is the part wherein the writer summarizes what he/she has already discussed in the main part, and finishes his/her presentation of idea.
Example My village is famous for several natural features. First, it is noted for the Bisil River which is wide and beautiful. On either side of this river, which is about 90 feet wide, there are many trees which have long branches that can move gracefully in the wind. In autumn the leaves of these trees fall, and cover the riverbanks like golden snow. Second, on the other side of the village is a hill called Tulu Niti, which is unusual because it is very steep. Even though it is steep, climbing this hill is not dangerous because there are some firm rocks along the sides that can be used from miles away. The third amazing feature is the big old tree. This tree stands two hundred feet tall, and is probably about three hundred years old.These three landmarks are truly amazing and make my village a famous place.
The two basic parts of a paragraph 1.A point is made: It is usually expressed in one sentence called main idea or topic sentence. 2.Evidence is provided to support the point. The other sentences in the paragraph contain specific details that support or develop the main idea/topic sentence. The Topic Sentence • It is a sentence that expresses the main idea of a paragraph. • The purpose/subject of the paragraph is clearly mentioned by a topic sentence. • It should be written in a simple manner, and it should concentrate on the theme of the paragraph. • If any paragraph starts with a good topic sentence, a reader can very rapidly get the gist of a text only by reading it.
Supporting Sentences • These play very important role in paragraph development. Major supporting sentences support topic sentence. By small supporting sentences, the related explanation and information can be written. Concluding Sentence • This restates the topic sentence creatively, and brings a strong sense of closure to the paragraph. My village is famous for several natural features. First, it is noted for the Bisil River which is wide and beautiful. On either side of this river, which is about 90 feet wide, there are many trees which have long branches that can move gracefully in the wind. In autumn the leaves of these trees fall, and cover the riverbanks like golden snow. Second, on the other side of the village is a hill called Tulu Niti, which is unusual because it is very steep. Even though it is steep, climbing this hill is not dangerous because there are some firm rocks along the sides that can be used from miles away. The third amazing feature is the big old tree. This tree stands two hundred feet tall, and is probably about three hundred years old.These three landmarks are truly amazing and make my village a famous place.
2.2. Characteristics of Good Paragraph 1.Unity: This feature indicates oneness of all the sentences in a paragraph. • All the sentences in a paragraph should refer to the main idea of a paragraph. • Therefore, a unified paragraph has all the sentences that are related to the main point. 2. Cohesion: This refers to the link between sentences in a paragraph. • Cohesion between sentences in a paragraph is kept through transition words/cohesive devices, synonyms, pronoun and repeating important word references. I have so many things to do when I get home today. First, I have to take my dog, Othello, for a 432 walk. Next, I should do my homework for my sociology class and study the chapter on franchise for Business. After that, I should do some laundry, since my sock drawer is empty. Then, my brother is coming over to fix the tailpipe on my car. Afterward, we will probably order a pizza for speedy dinner.
Cont.. 2. Coherence: The sentences in a paragraph should be arranged in a logical/sequential manner, and should follow a definite plan for development. • Coherence means sticking together. A paragraph is coherent when the sentences are woven together or flow into each other. A. Chronologicalorder:arranged in time sequence B. Spatial order:arranged based on the place of events C. Emphatic order: Based on their degree of importance. 4. Completeness: It provides enough supporting points for the main point or idea expressed in the topic sentence to be clearly understood. • It provides enough specific details and examples to be interesting and informative. • It does not leave the readers with unanswered questions. • It concludes with a sentence that clearly “wraps up” the paragraph and relates to the topic sentence in some manner.
2.3. Basic Types of a Paragraph 2.3.1. Expository Paragraph • It presents information on a specific topic; its purpose is to explain. • Expository writing usually does not include opinions, judgments or arguments. • Depending on your topic, you may need to obtain additional information about your topic through reading or research. • It includes definitions, examples, cause and effect relationships, processes/procedures, comparisons and contrasts, and classifications. 2.3.2. Narrative Paragraph: It usually presents information in chronological order. • Narration is the telling of a story. • It involves a discussion of events that are true/real, and take place over a period of time. • In a narrative, you would start from the beginning and move to the end, or from past to present, or from old to new.
2.3.3. Descriptive Paragraph • Descriptive details are necessary to create a visual impression of an object or a scene. • Good descriptive writers help the reader to see objects, scenes, and even moods by means of language. • Talented descriptive writers refine the power of their five senses in order to recreate people, places, things, emotions, and ideas. 2.3.4. Argumentative Paragraph: Argumentation is an attempt to convince the reader either to have the opinion you have on a subjectorto act in a particular manner. • Therefore, it is important to state your theme very clearly in argumentation, and to support your main point with convincing minor points. • In addition to presenting your own argument logically and convincingly, you must also recognize and deal with opposing arguments, a technique called refutation. • Obviously, there has to be more than one side to any debatable issue.
2.4. Techniques (Patterns) of Paragraph Development 2.4.1. Definition: A definition limits the thought: by classifying it generally and specifically; bytelling what it isor by determining its precise meaning and by fixing its denotation and connotation. • Definition is a method of explaining a word’s meaning. E.g. The word ethnic has come to have many different meanings during the years of the ethnic revival. 2.4.2. Exemplification: This method tries to make a general idea clear by providing specific examples and statistical data that substantiate it. • The writer illustrates the topic sentence with detail examples. E.g. The ability to write well-organized concise paragraphs is essential to a student’s success in almost all university courses. For instance,
2.4.3. Classification • It is the arrangement of information into groups or categories, or • It is a method of explaining or examining a topic by organizing its parts into categories. • Breaking down your subject into categories helps to organize your paragraph. E.g. Newspapers in India are classified into two categories according to the amount and completeness of information in them. 2.4.4. Cause and Effect: The writer may develop his ideas in a paragraph by going from cause to effect to from effect to cause. • This method helps to develop a statement by giving an account of the causes and effects of an event or situation. • It is concerned with why events and actions occur and what happens as a result. E.g. There are three main reasons I decided to attend Jimma University.First,
2.4.5. Comparison and Contrast • It is a method of analyzing likeness/similarity and differences between two or more subjects. • There are two ways of organizing comparison and contrast paragraph: A. Subject-by-subject organization • First write about one of your subject, covering it completely and then you write about the other, covering it completely. Subjects' points of comparison and contrast 1.Professor Jira 2. Professor Hiruta) class organization b) Examination c) Grading system Two excellent teachers, Professor Jira and Hirut, present a study in contrasting teaching styles. Professor Jira is extremely organized. He conducts each class the same way. He reviews the assignment, lectures about the new chapter, and explains the next assignment. He gives essay exams, and they are always based on important lecture topics. Because the topics are predictable, you know you are not wasting your time when you study. Professor Jira’s grading depends half on class participation and half on the essay exams. Professor Hirut, on the other hand, has an easy-going style. Each class is different and seems to reflect whatever she thinks will help us understand what she is teaching. Her classes are fun because you never know what to expect. Professor Hirut gives both multiple-choice and essay exams. These are difficult to study for because they are unpredictable. Our final grade is based entirely on the exams, so each requires a lot of studying beforehand. Although each professor teaches very differently, I am figuring out how to learn from each particular style.
b)Point by point organization • You discuss both of your subjects together for each point of comparison and contrast. Points of comparison/contrast Subjects A. Class organization 1. Professor Jira2. Professor Hirut B. Exams 1. Professor Jira2. Professor Hirut C. Grading system 1. Professor Jira 2. Professor Hirut Professor Jira and Professor Hirut demonstrate very different teaching styles in how they operate their classes, how they give exams, and how they grade us. Professor Jira’s classes are highly organized; we work through the lesson every day in the same order.Professor Hirut uses an opposite approach. She creates a lesson to fit the material, which enables us to learn most. Their exams differ too. Professor Jira gives standard, predictable essay exams that are based on his lectures. Professor Hirut gives both multiple-choice and essay exams, so we never know what to expect. In addition, each professor grades differently. Professor Jira counts class participation as half of our grade, so if you talk in class and do reasonably well on the exams, you will probably pass the course.Professor Hirut, on the other hand, counts the exams 100 percent, so you have to do well on them to pass the course. Each professor has a unique, enjoyable teaching style, and I am learning a great deal from each.
2.4.6. Process • A process paragraph or essay describes how something is done or how something works. • A “how -to”paragraph, for example, may explain how to change a flat tire, aid a choking (being unable to breathe) victim, or locate reference books in the library? • A “how-it-works” paragraph may explain how the human body regulates temperature, or how children acquire speech. • Both “how-to” and “how-it- works” paragraphs describe steps that occur only in a specified order. 2.4.7. Narration: The events in a narrative paragraph should usually be arranged in chronological order- the order in which they happened. • Try to answer for your reader most of the following questions: 1. When did it happen? 2. Who was involved?3. Why did they happen?4. Where did it happen? 5. What events occurred? 6. How did they happen? Chronological order: The ideas are organized in the sequence according to what happened first, then, second, then third, etc. until the final outcome.
2.4.8. Description • Description helps the reader visualize the topic. • Descriptive writing creates impression. Descriptive paragraphs or essay create an impression and enable your reader to visualize your topic sentence. To write effective descriptions: • Establish a dominant impression- and attitude or feelings about your topic. • Select relevant and sufficient details to support your dominant impression • Use descriptive languages: exact, colorful and vivid words that appeal to the senses. All the details in a descriptive paragraph must be relevant to and helpful in creating your dominant impression.
Unit Three: Writing Effective Essay 3.1. What of an Essay • An essay is a composition (the proportion of d/t parts to make a whole). • Essays are collections of paragraphs. • Its purpose is to share an idea, an observation, an incident, or an opinion with a reader. • An essay is a piece of writing, usually from a writer’s personal point of view; it is essentially true, a piece of non-fiction. • In addition, essay is built around a central idea, normally referred to as thesis statement. 3.2. Basic Structure of an Essay • Usually, academic essay has a similar format. It is at least five paragraphs long although often it is much longer. The most common size for an essay is five paragraphs.
1. The Introduction • The first paragraph of an essay should introduce the reader to the essay topic. • It consists of three main elements: 1. Hook: The first sentence (or sentences) of an essay should catch the reader’s attention. It introduces the topic of the essay in an interesting way. 2. Building sentences: After the hook, the following sentences should provide background information to give readers some context about the topic. • They should build towards the thesis statement. 3. Thesis statement:It comes at the end of the introduction. It is the most important sentence in the entire essay because it presents the essay topic and the writer’s position on that topic. • It also indicates the main ideas that will be discussed in the body paragraphs.
2. Body paragraphs • The body of an essay consists of three paragraphs. • There are three parts to a body paragraph: 1. Topic sentence: The first sentence of a body paragraph expresses the topic of the paragraph and provides a controlling idea about the topic. All information in the paragraph supports the controlling idea. 2. Supporting sentences: Supporting sentences explain and develop the topic sentence. 3. Concluding sentence: The paragraph may end with a concluding thought on the paragraph topic. It may also show a transition to the next paragraph.
3. The Conclusion • The conclusion consists of three elements: 1. Restated thesis: At the start of the conclusion, the thesis is restated in words different from those in the introduction. 2. Summary of main ideas: The main ideas from each of the body paragraphs are summarized as a reminder to the reader. 3. Final thought: The writer ends the essay by presenting a final thought on the topic. • For example, by stating an opinion, a solution, or a prediction. • The final thought should leave a strong impression and encourage the reader to think further about the topic.
Example Essay My dog is the best pet anyone could have. He is beautiful and easy to care for. Playing with him is lots of fun. He always takes care of me. There is not a better pet anywhere. My dog is a beautiful tricolor Sheltie. He is mostly black with white and a bit of brown. Caring for him is easy because I simply have to make sure he has fresh water and food every day. I exercise him by throwing his toys. He is a good pet because he is nice looking and does not require much care. He is also lots of fun to play with. He loves to play catch. He follows me around the house with a toy and drops it on my foot so I will kick it. He can catch just about anything, but his favorite is chasing a Frisbee. I really have fun playing with my dog. He, even, takes care of me. He always follows me when I leave a room. When I am sitting on the couch he plops down right beside me. When we are outside in the woods he always makes sure that I keep up with the rest of the family. He always watches out for me. As you can see, my dog is a great pet. I am proud of him and he does not require much care. Playing with him is always enjoyable. He watches over me and keeps me safe, and is absolutely the best pet anyone could even have!
Types of Essays 3.3.1. Expository Essay • Is used to explain, describe, give information or inform. • Exposition is the form of writing that explains something or conveys information. • It answers the questions how? and why? • It is designed to display information and to explain any unclear moments. • Exposition means the orderly analysis of available data on the topic with the use of illustrations, figures, tables or any other information. 3.3.2. Descriptive Essay: Is an essay that describes something or someone by appealing to the reader’s senses:sight, sound, touch, smell, and taste. • Through description, a writer presents mental images for his reader. • A writer points out about things, objects, places, people, etc. using sensory words (especially adjectives). • Through description, a writer can make their readers feel certain emotions. • The aim of descriptive essays is to provide a vivid picture of a person, location, object, event, etc.
3.3.3. Narrative Essay • In narration a writer tells a story about someone or something. • In this writing, we ask the questions: What happened? Where happened? When happened? Who involved? • Narrative essay puts events, incidents, phenomenon in the order of time-according to time sequence in which they happened (first, second, third, next, then, finally). • This time sequence/order is known as chronological order.
3.3.4. Argumentative Essay: The argumentative essay presents a writer’s point of view on a debatable topic. • So, its aim is to convince the reader based on logical reason, to change the mind of those who read it. • The change may involve getting readers to accept an idea, to take some sort of action, or both. Features • So, what do you write about? Pick a well-defined, controversial issue. • A clear position taken by the writer. In your thesis sentence, state what your position is. • A convincing argument. • A reasonable tone. It is important, therefore, that your tone be reasonable, professional, and trustworthy.
Steps/stages of Essay writing Step-1: Brainstorm ideas towards your topic. Step-2: Select and organize your points. Step-3: Prepare an outline plan for your topic. E.g. Topic:The benefit of running I. Introduction: A. Running is great form of exercise because it helps people control their weight, develop muscles, and improves mental performance. II. Body B. Weight control 1. Aids self control 2. Burns calories 3. Encourages a heavy diet
Cont.… C. Muscular development 1. Increases strength 2. Improves endurance 3. Improves tone D. Psychological well-being 1. Aids sleep 2. Inhabits depression 3. Intensifies vitality • Conclusion E. People who want to improve their health should consider running. Step-4: Write your first draft based on your outline plan. Step-5: Check and edit your first draft for: mechanics, idea accuracy, length, grammar… Step-6: Show your essays for other people and receive comments from them towards your essay. Step-7: Write the neat, final version of your essay.
