Outline

1. Outline • More on the use of the financial calculator and warnings • Dealing with periods other than years • Understanding interest rate quotes and conversions • Applications – mortgages, etc.

2. I. Warnings for annuities and perpetuities • Remember the PV formulas given for annuities and perpetuities always discount the cash flows to exactly one period before the first cash flow. • If the cash flows begin at period t, then you must divide the PV from our formula by (1+r)t-1 to get PV0. • Note: this works even if t is a fraction.

3. Example • A retirement annuity of 30 annual payments (each payment is $50,000) begins 20 years from today. The value of that annuity 20 years from today is __________________. The value of that annuity 19 years from today is ___________________. The value of that annuity today is ___________________. (r=12%)

4. Be careful of the number of annuity payments • Count the number of payments in an annuity. If the first payment is in period 1 and the last is in period 2, there are obviously 2 payments. How many payments are there if the 1st payment is in period 12 and the last payment is in period 21 (answer is 10 – use your fingers). How about if the 1st payment is now (period 0) and the last payment is in period 15 (answer is 16 payments). • If the first cash flow is at period t and the last cash flow is at period T, then there are T-t+1 cash flows in the annuity.

5. Example • Five years from now Mary will deposit $1,000 into a savings fund for her daughter Margaret. Each year she will make an additional $1,000 deposit. The last deposit will be twenty years from now. How much will accumulate into the savings fund by the time the last deposit is made? ___________________________ • What is the present value of the cash flows today?

6. Be careful of the wording of when a cash flow occurs • A cash flow occurs at the end of the third period. • A cash flow occurs at time period three. • A cash flow occurs at the beginning of the fourth period. • Each of the above statements refers to the same point in time! If in doubt, draw a time line.

7. Example • What is the value at the end of the 12th year of $100,000 that is invested at the beginning of the 5th year? __________________________

8. II. Dealing with periods other than years • Definition: Effective interest rates are returns with interest compounded once over the period of quotation. Examples: • 10% per year compounded yearly • 0.5% per monthcompounded monthly • PV and FV Calculations for a single cash flow • As long as you have an effective interest rate there is only one thing to ensure: set the number of periods for PV or FV calculation in the same units as the effective rate’s period of quotation.

9. Examples • You expect to receive $50,000 in 90 days. What is the PV if your relevant opportunity cost of capital is an effective rate of 6% per year? • Note if the you are told it is an effective rate of 6% per year, then this implies 6% per year compounded yearly. • You have just invested $100,000 and expect your return to be 4% per quarter compounded quarterly. How much do you expect to accumulate after 5 years?

10. Annuities and perpetuities • The annuity and perpetuity formulae require the rate used to be an effective rate and, in particular, the effective rate must be quoted over the same time period as the time between cash flows. In effect: • If cash flows are yearly, use an effective rate per year • If cash flows are monthly, use an effective rate per month • If cash flows are every 14 days, use an effective rate per 14 days • If cash flows are daily, use an effective rate per day • If cash flows are every 5 years, use an effective rate per 5 years. • Etc.

11. Example • You are obtaining a car loan from your bank and the loan will be repaid in 5 years of monthly payments beginning in one month. The amount borrowed is $20,000. Given the rate that the bank quoted, you have determined the effective monthly interest rate to be 0.75%. What are your monthly payments?

12. III. Understanding Interest Rate Quotes and Conversions • The TVM formulae we have used all require rates that are effective. Unfortunately, rates are rarely quoted in a way that we can input, as is, into our TVM formulae or calculator functions. • Thus we must be competent in converting between the rates that are quoted to us and the equivalent rates that are necessary for our calculations.

13. Interest Rate Conversions Step 1: finding the implied effective rate • Identify how the rate is quoted and, if not an effective rate, convert into the implied effective rate. Examples: • 10% per year compounded yearly • This rate is already effective, so there is nothing to do for step 1. • 60% per year compounded monthly • This rate is not effective, but it implies – by definition – an effective rate of 5% per month • Note: the quoted rate of 60% per year with monthly compounding is compounded 12 times per the quotation period of one year. Thus the implied effective rate is 60%÷ 12 = 5% and this implied effective rate is over a period of one year÷ 12 = one month.

14. Step 1: finding the implied effective rate • In words, step 1 can be described as follows: • Take both the quoted rate and its quotation period and divide by the compounding frequency to get the implied effective rate and the implied effective rate’s quotation period. • The quoted rate of 60% per year with monthly compounding is compounded 12 times per the quotation period of one year. Thus the implied effective rate is 60%÷ 12 = 5% and this implied effective rate is over a period of one year÷ 12 = one month.

15. Step 1: additional examples to find the implied effective rate • 16% per year compounded quarterly • 9% per year compounded semi-annually • 11% per year compounded bi-yearly (every two years) • 100% per decade compounded every 10 years

16. Step 2: Converting to the desired effective rate • Example: if you are doing loan calculations with quarterly payments, then the annuity formula requires an effective rate per quarter. • Once we have done step 1, if our implied effective rate is not our desired effective rate, then we need to convert to our desired effective rate.

17. Step 2: continuedConverting between equivalent effective rates • Use the example of 60% per year compounded monthly and the implied effective rate of 5% per month . . . we need an effective rate per quarter. Consider how $1 grows after 3 months . . . x 1.05 x 1.05 x 1.05 x 1.157625

18. Step 2: continuedEffective to effective conversion • In the previous example, 5% per month is equivalent to 15.7625% per 3 months (or quarter year). This result is due to the fact that (1+.05)3=1.157625 • As a formula this can be represented as • where rg is the given effective rate, rd is the desired effective rate. • Lg is the quotation period of the given rate and Ld is the quotation period of the desired rate, thus Ld/Lg is the length of the desired quotation period in terms of the given quotation period.

19. Step 2: additional examples to find the desired effective rate • 9% per year compounded semi-annually; from step one this gives us 4.5% per six months (effective rate). • Suppose we desire an equivalent effective rate per month • Suppose we desire an equivalent effective rate per year

20. Step 3? • For the purpose of doing TVM calculations, generally we are ready after doing steps 1 and 2 as we have obtained our desired effective rate and can now use it in the TVM formulae. • Unfortunately, there are some circumstances when we desire a final rate quoted in a manner that is not effective – here a third step is necessary.

21. Step 3: finding the final quoted rate • Identify how the final rate is to be quoted and, if not an effective rate, convert from the desired effective rate (determined in step 2) into the desired quoted rate. Examples: • Desired rate is to be quoted as a rate per quarter compounded quarterly • This rate is already effective and was determined in step 2 (where, using a previous example, we calculated 15.7625% per quarter), so there is nothing to do for step 3. • Desired rate is to be quoted as a rate per year compounded quarterly • This rate is not effective, but 15.7625% per quarter (from step 2) implies a desired quoted rate per year compounded quarterly of 63.05% • Note: the desired quoted rate is quoted per year with quarterly compounding; i.e., compounded 4 times per the quotation period of one year. Thus the desired quoted rate is 15.7625% per quarter x 4 = 63.05% quoted over one year (= 4 x one quarter of a year) compounded quarterly.

22. Step 3: finding the final quoted rate • In words, step 3 can be described as follows: • Take both the implied effective rate and its quotation period and multiply by the compounding frequency of the desired final quoted rate. This results in the desired final quoted rate and its quotation period. • In our example, the desired quoted rate is a rate per year compounded quarterly. Therefore the compounding frequency is 4. We multiply 15.7625% per quarter by 4 to get 63.05% per year compounded quarterly.

23. Step 3: additional examples • Given an effective rate of 15.7625% per quarter, find the following: • The rate per six months compounded quarterly • The rate per 2 years compounded quarterly • The rate per month compounded quarterly • The rate per 1.5 months compounded quarterly

24. Interest rate conversions: additional examples • Bank of Montreal is offering car loans at 8% per year compounded monthly. You manage Catfish Credit Union where rates are quoted as “per year compounded semiannually”. What is the most you could quote to remain competitive with Bank of Montreal? • Step 1: • Note: since your final quoted rate will be compounded semiannually, you would like to (in step 2) convert the B of M rate into an effective rate per 6 months. So step 2 depends on the desired outcome in step 3! • Step 3

25. Interest rate conversions – continuous compounding – self study • Consider steps 1 and 2 combined together in a formula to convert a quoted rate per period compounded m times into an effective rate over the same quotation period … • Note: this formula only handles steps 1 and 2 when the final effective rate has the same quotation period as the initial quoted rate. This formula is not recommended as it does NOT work in most situations and is only shown because of the derivation that follows. Do not use this formula. Use the 3-step method shown in the prior slides as that method works generally and this formula only works in one special situation.

26. Continuous Compounding – self study (continued) Using the previous formula and mathematical limits …

27. Continuous Compounding – self study – examples to try • What is the effective annual rate, given a quoted rate of 20% per year with… • Monthly compounding answer=21.939108% • Daily compounding answer=22.133586% • Compounding every hour answer=22.139997% • Continuous compounding answer=22.140276% • What is the rate per year compounded continuously if the effective annual rate is … • 10% answer=9.531018% • 50% answer=40.54651% • 100% answer=69.31472%

28. IV. Applications of TVM • Quotations on mortgages • Quotations on bonds • Quotations on credit cards • Quotations on personal loans and car loans • Mortgage and loan amortizations

29. Canadian Mortgage Quotes • Canadian mortgages are quoted as rates per year compounded semiannually. In this course, unless otherwise noted, assume all mortgage quotes are quoted in the above manner. • (Note, some of the text problems may not make this assumption, but all class assignments and exams will make this assumption unless otherwise noted). • Normally a constant series of monthly payments is required to repay the mortgage. What interest rate is required to do TVM calculations for the mortgage if the quoted rate is 6%?

30. Bond Yields • A bond’s yield is essentially the IRR of the bond and is quoted as a rate per year compounded semiannually. In this course, unless otherwise noted, assume bond yields are quoted in the above manner. • (Note, some of the text problems may not make this assumption, but all class assignments and exams will make this assumption unless otherwise noted). • Most corporate and government bonds have constant semiannual coupon payments and a lump sum terminal payment. What interest rate is required to do TVM calculations on the bond coupons if the yield is quoted as 8%?

31. Credit Cards • CIBC Visa quotes the annual interest rate of 19.50% and the daily interest rate of 0.05342%. How are the two rates quoted? What is the effective rate per year charged by CIBC Visa?

32. Personal Loans and Car Loans • Most banks quote the interest rates on personal loans and car loans as rates per year compounded monthly. • Since personal loans and car loans generally require equal monthly payments, what interest rate would be used in TVM formulae if the quoted rate was 12%?

33. Mortgage and loan amortizations • A mortgage contract specifies the quoted rate and the amortization period for the payments. The amortization period is often longer than the duration of the contract. Thus we must determine the payments, the amount of interest and principal paid each month, and the outstanding principal at the end of the contract. • Example: You have just negotiated a 5 year mortgage on $100,000 amortized over 30 years at a rate of 8%. • What are the monthly payments? • What are the principal and interest payments each month for the first 3 months of payments? • How much will be left at the end of the 5 year contract? • If the mortgage terms do not change over then entire amortization period, how much interest and principal reduction result from the 300th payment?

34. Mortgage example • First determine the relevant effective rate for TVM calculations. • Next determine the monthly payment. • Now utilize the table on the next page to understand how a mortgage amortization schedule works.

35. Mortgage amortization schedule Column: A B C D E Month Principal outstanding at the beginning of the month Interest charged during the month Monthly payment Principal reduction with monthly payment Principal outstanding at the end of the month (after the payment) = A • r% = E0 ÷ anr% = C - B = A - D 0 $100,000.00 1 $100,000.00 $655.82 $724.71 $68.89 $99,931.11 2 $99,931.11 $655.37 $724.71 $69.34 $99,861.77 3 $99,861.77 $654.91 $724.71 $69.80 $99,791.97 4 $99,791.97 $654.46 $724.71 $70.26 $99,721.71 Note: as time goes by, the principal outstanding is reduced and therefore the interest charge per month drops. This results in more of the monthly payment going toward principal reduction as time elapses. The way the annuity payments are calculated, the last payment will have just enough principal reduction to repay the remaining principal owed and then the loan will be repaid.

36. Mortgage continued • How much will be left at the end of the 5-year contract? • After 5 years of payments (60 payments) there are 300 payments remaining in the amortization. The principal remaining outstanding is just the present value of the remaining payments. • How much interest and principal reduction result from the 300th payment? • When the 299th payment is made, there are 61 payments remaining. The PV of the remaining 61 payments is the principal outstanding at the beginning of the 300th period and this can be used to calculate the interest charge which can then be used to calculate the principal reduction.

37. Summary and conclusions • Cash flows that occur in different time periods cannot be added together unless they are brought to one common time period. We usually use PV to do this and sometimes FV. • PV and FV calculations were done for single cash flows, constant annuities and perpetuities and growing annuities and perpetuities. In addition, we used the concepts of NPV and IRR. • For annuities and perpetuities, we must ensure the discount rate is effective and quoted over a period the same as the time period between cash flows. • TVM principles are useful for analyzing consumption and investment decisions. TVM principles are also useful for working with loan and mortgage amortizations. • If you understand TVM principles, you do not need to blindly rely on another party to determine value or interest costs. You know what factors affect these and you can determine reasonable numbers for yourself.