JE #10: Unit Two Objectives

1. I can…… organize matter from atom to macromolecule. define macromolecule and explain its significance to cell structure. identify the structure and function of a carbohydrate, lipid, protein, and nucleic acid. state the Cell Theory and understand the history of cell discovery differentiate between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. JE #10: Unit Two Objectives

6. identify the structure and function of cell organelles. • explain the importance of surface area vs. volume ratio of cells and how it relates to their function. • differentiate between acids and bases and explain how pH is important to cell homeostasis. • explain how enzyme activity is important to cell homeostasis. • identify chemical characteristics of water and explain how they are related to cell homeostasis.

7. Unit One Notes, pt. I:Biochemistry *Organization of Matter: Atom  Element  Compound  Mixture *Identification of 50+ Biological Elements. *Macromolecules: Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, and Nucleic Acids.

8. Organization of Matter Atom—the smallest particle of an element that has all the properties of the element. The atom is the basic building block of all elements. • Atoms are made up of smaller particles called subatomic particles: Protons—positively charged, located in the nucleus; identifies the atom/element (same as the atomic #). Neutrons—neutral (no charge), located in the nucleus; determines the isotope(form) of the element Electrons—negatively charged, located outside of the nucleus; involved in chemical bonding (determines whether the atom will undergo a chemical reaction with another atom).

9. Draw the Shape of an Atom

10. What is the Atomic NumberWhat is Atomic Mass

11. Isotopes

12. Element—a pure substance that cannot be separated into simpler substances by ordinary chemical means. *An element is made of only one type of atom making it a pure substance.

13. Atom vs. Element Single Atom vs. Element Carbon Atom Carbon Element

14. Compounds—pure substances composed of 2 or more elements that are chemically combined (react together to form a new substance)Hydrogen + Oxygen = WaterCompounds can be broken down only by chemical changes.

15. *Compounds take on different characteristics than the elements that make them.Sodium + Chlorine = Sodium chloride*Sodium reacts violently in water*Chlorine is a poisonous gasSodium chloride is table salt Compounds in Nature: Proteins, Water, Carbohydrates, Carbon dioxide

16. Mixtures—combination of 2 or more substances that are not chemically combined. Each substance in a mixture keeps its chemical makeup (identity) because no chemical change occurred. Mixtures can be physically separated.

17. Atom vs Ion • an ionis an electrically charged particle produced by either removing electrons from a neutral atom to give a positive ion or adding electrons to a neutral atom to give a negative ion. When an ion is formed, the number of protons does not change. • Na+ Cl- H+ OH- SO4-2

18. Organic Compounds • Contains carbon atoms covalently bonded to other carbon atoms OR to other elements • Examples-butane, methane ether, vitamins The key to recognizing an organic molecule is…look for a “C” C8H9NO2 C12H22O11 NaC12H25SO4

19. What’s the big deal about CARBON? • Carbon easily forms strong nonpolar covalent bonds with other atoms, including other carbon atoms. • Each carbon creates four bonds to other atoms (some of which may be other carbon atoms), giving carbon structures diversity, flexibility, and strength. • Carbons bonded together form long chains that can branch and form more complex structures.

20. The properties of carbon allow its compounds to store large amounts of chemical bond energy. • Carbon is the basis for living organisms on earth.

21. Bonding • Covalent-sharing of electrons, between Non Metals • Ionic- Transfer of electrons, between a metal and a non metal

22. Chemical Equations NaCl H2SO4 Mg(HSO4)2 Chemical Reactions Balance Left side must equal the right 6CO2 + 6H2O ------> C6H12O6 + 6O2

23. Macromolecules *Cells are made up of four basic ingredients: carbohydrates lipids proteins nucleic acids *Each of these ingredients are a type of macromolecule. Macromolecule – a large, organic compounds needed by living things in large amounts.

24. Characteristics of Macromolecules • All macromolecules have carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) in common. • All macromolecules are types of organic compounds. Organic Compound – any type of compound that is made/used by living things and contains the element carbon. *Examples of Organic Compounds: C6H12O6 = blood sugar (glucose) CH4 = methane gas *Examples of Inorganic Compounds: H2O = water NaCl = table salt

25. All macromolecules are classified as polymers, made up of repeating subunits called monomers. Polymer – a generic term for any large compound made up of many smaller subunits, called monomers. Monomer – a generic term for any small subunit that links together to form a larger compound, called a polymers.

26. Monomer vs. Polymer *Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are all POLYMERS made up of smaller units called monomers – small subunits that make up larger molecules. Ex: Brick = Monomer Brick Wall = Polymer

27. More Examples.... • Monomer.... • Polymer....

28. *Each of the four main macromolecules are organized based on the following: (be able to compare and contrast each one in these categories!!!) Description Function Chemical Ingredients Monomer Overall shape Sub-classes Examples

29. Carbohydrate Description: sugars and starches Function: quick energy for cells Chemical Ingredients: *carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; C, H, O will always be in a 1:2:1 ratio (ex: C6H12O6 = blood sugar) Monomer: Monosaccharide *single sugar subunit consisting of 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and 6 oxygen atoms (1:2:1 ratio).

30. *Shape: shape is either straight or ring-shaped, depending on the # of monosaccharides (monomer) are hooked together. Example of a single monosaccharide Example of two monosaccharides (ring form)

31. *Subclasses: • Monosaccharides: - simplest sugar - C6H12O6 - also the monomer of a carbohydrate. - ex: glucose

32. Disaccharides - two monosaccharides chemically linked together. - C12H22O11 (not a perfect 1:2:1 ratio because one molecule of water is lost for every monosaccharide that hooks together) - ex: sucrose (table sugar)

33. Polysaccharides: - multiple (many) monosaccharides linked together (most complex carbohydrate) - ex: starches, glycogen, cellulose Starch – carbohydrate produced by plants as an energy source (potatoes, pasta, bread). Cellulose – fibrous material found in plant cell walls that give cells shape and rigidity. Glycogen – a chemical found in the liver of animals made up of multiple links of glucose molecules; produced when extra glucose molecules in the blood are not needed.

34. Why Are Carbohydrates Important To Know.... • Glucose is the only carbohydrate that is usable by living organisms because it is one of the main ingredients used during cellular respiration; any other carbohydrate MUST be broken down by the body. • Glucose is broken down during cellular respiration to extract energy needed for cells to function. • Glucose is a monosaccharide and is the simplest sugar possible...therefore, it is not necessary for an organism to break it down any further.

35. The more your body has to work to break the carbohydrate down into glucose, the more calories you burn!! • If you eat meals full of fructose and sucrose (disacccharides), your body doesn’t have to work as hard to break it down; • Since polysaccharides are made up of many subunits, they need a lot of energy to be broken down and thus, you burn calories. • Fiber is the “toughest” polysaccharide to break down; in some cases, you actually burn more calories just by digesting the food than what is actually in the food!!

36. Sugar-free products usually use more trans-fat (artificial fat) which raises cholesterol levels OR sometimes disguises its “sugar-free” claim with other scientific names for sugar. Moral of story....please read your food labels!! Check out fiber content!!! If a product has 0 fiber, you are consuming TOO MUCH sugar and it will go straight to FAT!!

37. Lipids Description: fats, oils, and waxes Function: long-term energy storage, makes up cell membrane and hormones, cushioning. Chemical Ingredients: *large #s of carbon and hydrogen, but low #s oxygen; (low # of oxygen makes fats insoluable in water). Monomer: Fatty Acid - molecule that consist of long hydrocarbon tails (made up of C and H only) and a “head” made up of a compound called glycerol.

38. Fatty Acid Structure • *The head is hydrophilic, meaning that it borders any type of water (water-loving). • *The hydrocarbon tail is hydrophobic, meaning that it always points inward, away from water (water-hating).

39. - there are two types of lipid monomers: Saturated Fatty Acids: *comes from animals. *hardens at room temperature. *disease-causing; clogs arteries. *has a straight tail, meaning all carbons and hydrogens are single-bonded to each other, leaving no more room for further bonding (hence... “saturated”).

40. Unsaturated Fatty Acid: • comes from plants • stays liquid at room temp. • better alternative for your health; doesn’t clog arteries. • hydrocarbon tail is kinked since some of the bonds between carbon and hydrogen are double bonds (meaning that more carbon and hydrogen could be added to it later..... “unsaturated” means not full).

41. Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fatty Acids

42. *Shape: shape of fat (lipid) depends on... 1) whether it is saturated or unsaturated. 2) the number of hydrocarbon tails present. *Subgroups: • Triglycerides – fat found in diet; three tails.

43. Steroids – hormones; tails are ring-shaped instead of straight. • Phospholipids – make up cell membrane; two hydrocarbon tails.

44. Proteins Description: makes up skin, nails, bone, muscle, etc.; enzymes; antibodies; chemical messengers. Function: provides structure; cell homeostasis and regulation (control messaging, chemical reactions, etc.) Chemical Ingredients: C, H, N, O, (no particular ratio) Monomer: Amino Acid • *there are twenty different types of amino acids that can hook together to forma protein.

45. *Protein size can range from two amino acids (dipeptide) to thousands of amino acids (polypeptide). *Proteins are diverse because these 20 amino acids can arrange themselves in any number and order to make each protein unique. Shape: mostly globular, some helical and others pleated.

46. Subgroups of Proteins 1) Structural Proteins – make up hair, skin, muscle, nails, etc.; such as collagen, keratin, elastin. • Enzymes – special proteins that help speed up chemical reactions; many enzymes help to speed up digestion. ex: Lactase = enzyme needed to break down lactose (milk sugar).

47. Antibodies – proteins that are apart of our immune system; helps to fight off infection. • Receptor Proteins – chemical messengers that help cells communicate with each other.

48. Nucleic Acids *Description: organic molecules that store the information necessary to conduct life. *Function: contain the genetic code to produce proteins (proteins determine the structure and function of living things). *Chemical Ingredients: C, H, N, O, and P. *Monomer: basic unit of a nucleic acid is called a nucleotide:

49. Nucleotides *Each nucleotide contains three ingredients: 1) sugar group 2) phosphate group 3) nitrogen group – 4 types *Since there are four different nitrogen groups (aka “nitrogen bases”), there are four different kinds of nucleotides. *These four nucleotides are arranged randomly in a unique number and order to make each living thing genetically unique.

50. Nucleotide