Memory Chapter 8

1. MemoryChapter 8

2. Memory Retrieval: Retrieval Cues Forgetting • Encoding Failure • Storage Decay • Retrieval Failure Definition Information Processing Models Encoding: Getting Information In • How We Encode • What We Encode Storage: Retaining Information • Sensory Memory • Working/Short-Term Memory • Long-Term Memory Rehearsal Storing Memories in the Brain Memory Construction • Misinformation and Imagination Effects • Source Amnesia • Children’s Eyewitness Recall • Repressed or Constructed Memories of Abuse? Improving Memory

3. Definition • Memory is any indication that learning has persisted over time. • It is our ability to store and retrieve information. • It is not replaying the events

4. Which color is on top on a stoplight? • How many rows of stars are on the U.S. flag? • Whose image is on a dime? Is he wearing a tie? • What five words besides In God We Trust appear on most U.S. coins? • When water goes down the drain, does it swirl clockwise or counterclockwise?

5. Which color is on top on a stoplight? Red • How many rows of stars are on the U.S. flag? 9 • Whose image is on a dime? Is he wearing a tie? F.D. Roosevelt with no tie • What five words besides In God We Trust appear on most U.S. coins? “United States of America” and “Liberty,” • When water goes down the drain, does it swirl clockwise or counterclockwise? water drains counterclockwise in the Northern hemisphere

6. Studying Memory: Information Processing Models Monitor (Retrieval) Disk (Storage) Keyboard (Encoding) Sequential Process

7. Information Processing The Atkinson-Schiffrin (1968) three-stage model of memory includes a) sensory memory,b) short-term memory, and c) long-term memory. Frank Wartenberg/ Picture Press/ Corbis Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works

8. Encoding: Getting Information In How We Encode • Some information (route to your school) is automatically processed. • However, new or unusual information (friend’s new cell-phone number) requires attention and effort.

9. Automatic Processing We process an enormous amount of information effortlessly, such as the following: • Space: While reading a textbook, you automatically encode the place of a picture on a page. • Time: We unintentionally note the events that take place in a day. • Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of things that happen to you.

10. Effortful Processing Committing novel information to memory requires effort just like learning a concept from a textbook. Such processing leads to durable and accessible memories. Spencer Grant/ Photo Edit © Bananastock/ Alamy

11. Storage: Retaining Information Storage is at the heart of memory. Three stores of memory are shown below: Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Encoding Events Encoding Retrieval Retrieval

12. Sensory Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Encoding Events Encoding Retrieval Retrieval

13. Sensory Memories The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses. Iconic 0.5 sec. long Echoic 3-4 sec. long

14. Whole Report Sperling (1960) R G TF M QL Z S “Recall” R T M Z (44% recall) 50 ms (1/20 second) The exposure time for the stimulus is so small that items cannot be rehearsed.

15. Partial Report S X TJ R SP K Y Low Tone Medium Tone High Tone “Recall” J R S (100% recall) 50 ms (1/20 second) Sperling (1960) argued that sensory memory capacity was larger than what was originally thought.

16. Time Delay A D IN L VO G H Low Tone Medium Tone High Tone “Recall” N _ _ (33% recall) Time Delay 50 ms (1/20 second)

17. Working Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Encoding Events Encoding Retrieval Retrieval

18. Working Memory Working memory, the new name for short-term memory, has a limited capacity (7±2) and a short duration (20 seconds). The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information (1956).

19. Capacity Ready? M U T G I K T L R S Y P

21. Chunking The capacity of the working memory may be increased by “chunking.” F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M FBI TWA CIA IBM 4 chunks

22. Working Memory Duration

23. Long-Term Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Encoding Events Encoding Retrieval Retrieval

24. Long-Term Memory Essentially unlimited capacity store. R.J. Erwin/ Photo Researchers The Clark’s nutcracker can locate 6,000 caches of buried pine seeds during winter and spring.

25. 10 Long-term memory The memory system involved in the long-term storage of information One way information is organized is in semantic categories (e.g., animals).

26. 10 Conceptual grid

27. 10 Types of long-term memories

28. 10 Contents of long-term memory Semantic memories General knowledge, including facts, rules, concepts, and propositions Episodic memories Personally experienced events and the contexts in which they occurred

29. Memory Stores

30. Rehearsal Effortful learning usually requires rehearsal or conscious repetition. Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZ http://www.isbn3-540-21358-9.de Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)

31. Rehearsal The more times the nonsense syllables were practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions were required to remember them on Day 2.

32. Memory Effects • Spacing Effect: We retain information better when we rehearse over time. • Serial Position Effect: When your recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items.

33. 10 Serial-position effect The tendency for recall of first and last items on a list to surpass recall of items in the middle of the list

34. Mnemonics Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids. Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery and organizational devices in aiding memory. ROYGBIV

35. Storing Memories in the Brain • Loftus and Loftus (1980) reviewed previous research data showing, through brain stimulation, that memories were unintentionally invented. • Using rats, Lashley (1950) suggested that even after removing parts of the brain, the animals retain partial memory of the maze.

36. Synaptic Changes Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)refers to synaptic enhancement after learning (Lynch, 2002). An increase in neurotransmitter release or receptors on the receiving neuron indicates strengthening of synapses. Both Photos: From N. Toni et al., Nature, 402, Nov. 25 1999. Courtesy of Dominique Muller

37. Stress Hormones & Memory Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories. Flashbulb memories are clear memories of emotionally significant moments or events Scott Barbour/ Getty Images

38. Storing Implicit & Explicit Memories Explicit Memoryrefers to facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare. Implicit memory involves learning an action while the individual does not know or declare what she knows.

39. Hippocampus Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbic system that processes explicit memories. Weidenfield & Nicolson archives

40. Anterograde Amnesia After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient Henry M. (HM) remembered everything before the operation but cannot make new memories. We call this anterograde amnesia. Anterograde Amnesia (HM) No New Memories Memory Intact Surgery

41. A C B Implicit Memory HM is unable to make new memories that are declarative (explicit), but he can form new memories that are procedural (implicit). HM learned the Tower of Hanoi (game) after his surgery. Each time he plays it, he is unable to remember the fact that he has already played the game.

42. Cerebellum Cerebellum – a neural center in the hindbrain that processes implicit memories.