Non-Coercive Defence Diplomacy – countering militarisation , with military diplomacy.

1. Non-Coercive Defence Diplomacy – countering militarisation, with military diplomacy. Presented at the 2ND CONFERENCE OF AFRICAN DIPLOMATIC ACADEMIES, RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS AND UNIVERSITIES, 19 March 2019 DrYolanda K. SpiesUniversity of Johannesburg

2. Acknowledgement Col. Robin Blake (ex-SANDF) Lecturer at University of Pretoria • Forthcoming: Co-authored article on NCDD for Conflict Prevention, in Scientia Militaria.

3. Africa, military prominence and conflict • Militarisation of a continent: colonial times & post-colonial, Cold War & post-Cold War • Domestic manifestation: inflated military influence and power; militarisation before development; strong men regimes, coups as regime change. Some positive military role (SA, Zim, Egypt) • Military in FP: Foreign aid as military aid; military men as ambassadors; solidarity with military regimes; reluctance to intervene, even w. legal justification • A continent full of ‘negative peace’ (e.g. South Sudan, DRC, CAR, Côte d’Ivoire, Mozambique) • Need to rethink the FP-military relationship.

4. Foreign Policy and its tools • Foreign policy: policy and actions of a state, directed toward the external world Types of FP tools: • Political (e.g. diplomacy) • Economic • Socio-cultural • Military • Overlaps, grey areas among tools • Tools can be used coercively and non-coercively • Tools can be combined • Diplomacy - military nexus: various outcomes e.g. coercive diplomacy, defence diplomacy

5. Defence Diplomacy • Military-diplomacy relationship: historic and universal • Post-CW increase, and focus change • All diplomatic levels: bilateral, multilateral; third party and polylateral Main Functions of Defence Diplomacy: • supports political commitments for cooperation • fosters common interests • establishes, broadens or deepens cooperation between defence forces • demonstrates transparency to limit misunderstandings These actions can work towards: • development goals • regional integration goals • conflict management and conflict prevention

6. Examples of Defence Diplomacy • defence attachés appointed to diplomatic missions • defence specialists seconded to multilateral organisations • formal defence cooperation agreements (e.g. treaties) • training of defence & civilian personnel • provision of expertise & advice on defence-related matters • ship visits and other military related exchanges • joint training exercises • provision of military equipment & technical expertise • preventive deployment • demilitarized zones, safe havens and peace zones • arms embargoes and blockades • arms control regimes • joint patrolling and ceasefire monitoring • non-aggression agreements • non-offensive force postures • intelligence exchanges and early warning information dissemination • providing Humanitarian and Disaster Relief (HADR) • exchange of annual calendars of military activities

7. NCDD and Conflict Prevention • NCDD has narrower application than defence diplomacy • No threat or actual use of violence • Principles: transparency, reputation and integrity • Nett benefit is Conflict Prevention. How? Draws on new approaches to conflict management • Infectious, non-linear conflict : Stable /positive peace must be ‘built’ • Long-term, holistic approach: conflict prevention also part of post-conflict strategies • Many stakeholders, including defence forces Synchronised with life conflict stages • NCDD essential during ‘negative peace’ (1sttwo stages); before violence • 3 stages: incipient, latent and manifest conflict (Christopher Mitchell). Approach • Builds long-term, constructive relationships; Focuses on similarities rather than on differences • Assists in modifying conflictual behaviour; avoids henemony • Creates TRUST. Key concept: Confidence Building Measures (CBMs) or CSBMs • Prioritises early warning systems

8. NCDD at the pan-African level • Pan-Africanist ideal to integrate defence relations • OAU, AU institutional weaknesses. • Certain regions lead, e.g. ECOWAS • African Peace & Security Architecture 1. Peace & Security Council “to anticipate and prevent conflicts”; “to implement the common defence policy of the AU”; “take on peace-making & peace-building functions incl. peace support operations”. NB!! A diplomatic body with crucial defence diplomacy mandate 2. Panel of the Wise 3. African Peace Fund 4. African Standby Force 5. Continental Early Warning System • information collection and monitoring; • conflict and cooperation analysis; and • formulation of response options Clear imperative for strategic priority to NCDD!

9. Concluding thoughts • Two obvious imperatives for Africa: rehabilitate the role of defence forces, and reduce conflict. • NCDD an obvious dual remedy, and available to all states Some practical proposals • Dip Academies: teach diplomats about NCDD • Defence Academies: take on board dip skills (e.g. mediation, negotiation, networking etc.). • Revolving-door exchanges, joint ventures between defence forces & research institutions • Regional training, sharing of NCDD resources • AU institutional capacity building in NCDD • NCDD explicitly included in state, REC and AU policy

10. Defence forces in Africa have been politically prominent (and often maligned) in the post-colonial dispensation, but their potential positive agency, specifically to prevent conflict is a largely untapped resource. NCDD requires more strategic attention and investment in training to allow for its implementation. Diplomatic studies institutes, and diplomatic training centres, have a key role in this regard.