UK higher education in 2003: ever-changing novelty or persistent, familiar issues

1. 1 UK higher education in 2003: ever-changing novelty or persistent, familiar issues? Dr Peter Wright, consultant (ex- QAA) Presentation to the 1994 Group Senior Management project module University of Warwick, 1 April 2003 Very few books provide a general introduction to the history or social functions of higher education in England (or, for that matter, Britain/ UK). However, one influential work, edited by Lawrence Stone, remains of considerable interest even though nearly thirty years old. That is: Stone, Lawrence (Ed) (1974), The University in Society. Volume 1: Oxford and Cambridge from the 14th to the early 19th century; Volume 2: Europe, Scotland, and United States from the 16th to the 20th century (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton, University Press). A quite recent, brief outline of the main themes of the historical and sociological studies of British universities (with a good bibliography) is: Anderson, R D (1995), Universities and Elites in Britain since 1800, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)Very few books provide a general introduction to the history or social functions of higher education in England (or, for that matter, Britain/ UK). However, one influential work, edited by Lawrence Stone, remains of considerable interest even though nearly thirty years old. That is: Stone, Lawrence (Ed) (1974), The University in Society. Volume 1: Oxford and Cambridge from the 14th to the early 19th century; Volume 2: Europe, Scotland, and United States from the 16th to the 20th century (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton, University Press). A quite recent, brief outline of the main themes of the historical and sociological studies of British universities (with a good bibliography) is: Anderson, R D (1995), Universities and Elites in Britain since 1800, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)

2. 2 Change, change … always change! More change in a dozen years than ever before ?? For example: Political salience: HE of strategic political importance: ‘knowledge economy’, R & D, ‘social inclusion/effectiveness’, international standing and comparability, accountability/’quality’ Structural reform: ’Single’ HE sector since 1992; some legal definition, the rise of HEFCE, ‘quality’, ‘information’, etc. For examples of many such changes and government initiatives, see the recent White Paper, The Future of Higher Education, Department of Education and Skills (Norwich, HMSO) 2003. An authoritative study on the relationship between British universities and the state, despite its age, remain influential: Berdahl, R. O. (1959), British universities and the state (Berkeley: University of California Press) The nature of the state-HE relationship in Britain is further illuminated by a study of the University Grants Committee, the principal mechanism for channelling government funding into the universities from 1919 until 1989. Shattock, M.(1994), The UGC and the Management and British Universities (Buckingham, Open University Press) A discussion of the rise of the ‘new managerialism’ in UK higher education is provided in: Deem, R. (1998),The ‘New Managerialism’ and Higher Education: the management of performances and cultures in Universities in the United Kingdom’, International Studies in Sociology of Education, Vol. 8, No. 1, 1998 For examples of many such changes and government initiatives, see the recent White Paper, The Future of Higher Education, Department of Education and Skills (Norwich, HMSO) 2003. An authoritative study on the relationship between British universities and the state, despite its age, remain influential: Berdahl, R. O. (1959), British universities and the state (Berkeley: University of California Press) The nature of the state-HE relationship in Britain is further illuminated by a study of the University Grants Committee, the principal mechanism for channelling government funding into the universities from 1919 until 1989. Shattock, M.(1994), The UGC and the Management and British Universities (Buckingham, Open University Press) A discussion of the rise of the ‘new managerialism’ in UK higher education is provided in: Deem, R. (1998),The ‘New Managerialism’ and Higher Education: the management of performances and cultures in Universities in the United Kingdom’, International Studies in Sociology of Education, Vol. 8, No. 1, 1998

3. 3 Change, change … always change? Transformed funding: state subsidy to individual beneficiaries; new ‘market’ forces (or simulation); ‘diversity’ (?); weakening of producer control, Govt rejection of ‘special case’ view of HE Expansion: ten-fold since Robbins (1963); doubling since 1989: the end of scarcity? And much else … The first volume of the Dearing Committee’s 1997 HE report gives considerable detail of many of the changes in the nature and characteristics of UK higher education over the previous two or three decades. Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education (1997), Higher Education in the Learning Society (Norwich:HMSO). (Further discussion is also provided in the January 2003 White Paper[already cited]). The first volume of the Dearing Committee’s 1997 HE report gives considerable detail of many of the changes in the nature and characteristics of UK higher education over the previous two or three decades. Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education (1997), Higher Education in the Learning Society (Norwich:HMSO). (Further discussion is also provided in the January 2003 White Paper[already cited]).

4. 4 Size: a great increase in scale Students 1921 (Univs only) 12,400 FT and c. 3,000PT 1962-3 216,000 FT (Un:118k; TT: 55k & AFE 3k [+ est 100k PT apart ITT]) 1991 1,275,000 (total FT + PT) 2001 2,122,000 (total FT + PT) Age-participation rates 1962 8.5% (of which 4% univs) 1980s 15-18% 45% (34% graduation rate) 2010 50% ?? Source of the recent figures: the Higher Education Statistics Agency (HESA) and the 2003 White Paper. The 1962 figures are drawn from: The Committee on Higher Education (1963), Higher Education: report of the Committee appointed by the Prime Minister under the chairmanship of Lord Robbins 1961-63 (Cmnd. 2154) (London, Her Majesty’s Stationery Office) (The ‘Robbins Report’), pp.11-20.Source of the recent figures: the Higher Education Statistics Agency (HESA) and the 2003 White Paper. The 1962 figures are drawn from: The Committee on Higher Education (1963), Higher Education: report of the Committee appointed by the Prime Minister under the chairmanship of Lord Robbins 1961-63 (Cmnd. 2154) (London, Her Majesty’s Stationery Office) (The ‘Robbins Report’), pp.11-20.

5. 5 Many more universities UK UNIVERSITIES 1250 2 (England: 2 univs c1250-1836) 1495 5 (Ox/Cam + Glas, St Andws & Aberdeen 1583 6 (+ Edinburgh) 1836 8 (Engl: 4 unis = O/C + Dur + Lond) 16 1958 24 1963 32 1989 46 2003 113 UCAS estimates c.48,000 distinct programmes Source: Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE) (2001) Higher Education in the UK, Document 01/56 (Bristol: HEFCE) See also: Stewart, W. A. C., (1989), Higher Education in Post-war Britain, (London: Macmillan) and Lowe, R. (1988) Education in the Post-War Years: A Social History (London: Routledge) Source: Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE) (2001) Higher Education in the UK, Document 01/56 (Bristol: HEFCE) See also: Stewart, W. A. C., (1989), Higher Education in Post-war Britain, (London: Macmillan) and Lowe, R. (1988) Education in the Post-War Years: A Social History (London: Routledge)

6. 6 Changing HE: result of massification? Martin Trow’s distinctions: ‘elite’ (<15% participation), ‘mass’ (> 15%) and ‘universal’ (>50%) Strong growth in UK C. 1890-1920: 20,000->50,000 –impact of Civics, TeachTrng, WW1 and 12 London polys: -> 5% ? 1955-72: 125,00->750,000 –the ‘Robbins settlement’ + new univs, new polys and impact of 1944 Education Act: -> 15% 1989-97: c.900,00-> 1,700,000: 1992 Act, school,& exam change and economic pressure: -> 40% For the classic exposition of the distinction between ’elite’, ‘mass’ and ‘universal’ forms of higher education and their social functions, demands, ramifications and broader significance see: Trow, M. (1973). Problems in the transition from elite to mass higher education. (Berkeley, California: Carnegie Commission on Higher Education) Also, see Trow’s more recent comments: Trow, M (2000) ‘From Mass Higher Education to Universal Access: the American Advantage’, Centre for the Study of Higher Education (CSHE). Occasional Papers. Spring 2000 (Berkeley, California: CSHE, University of California, Berkeley available to be downloaded from: http://ishi.lib.berkeley.edu/cshe/publications/papers/papers/PP.Trow.MassHE.1.00.pdf The first generation of London polytechnics, established from the 1880s to 1914 are considered in: Floud, R and Glyn, S (Eds.) (1998), London Higher: the establishment of higher education in London (London: the Athlone Press)For the classic exposition of the distinction between ’elite’, ‘mass’ and ‘universal’ forms of higher education and their social functions, demands, ramifications and broader significance see: Trow, M. (1973). Problems in the transition from elite to mass higher education. (Berkeley, California: Carnegie Commission on Higher Education) Also, see Trow’s more recent comments: Trow, M (2000) ‘From Mass Higher Education to Universal Access: the American Advantage’, Centre for the Study of Higher Education (CSHE). Occasional Papers. Spring 2000 (Berkeley, California: CSHE, University of California, Berkeley available to be downloaded from: http://ishi.lib.berkeley.edu/cshe/publications/papers/papers/PP.Trow.MassHE.1.00.pdf The first generation of London polytechnics, established from the 1880s to 1914 are considered in: Floud, R and Glyn, S (Eds.) (1998), London Higher: the establishment of higher education in London (London: the Athlone Press)

7. 7 Changing HE: massification? Mass scale exerts pressures for change: e.g.: Students more heterogeneous Programmes more responsive to demands HE more diverse in purpose, structure and experience Scarcity ceases to distinguish graduates New forms of learning and teaching are needed Calls for public accountability and quality assurance BUT: “British HE becomes a mass system in its public structures, but remains an elite one in its private instincts.” Peter Scott, 1995, p.2 See: Scott, P. (1995) The Meanings of Mass Higher Education (Buckingham: OU Press/ SRHE), also Wright, P. W. G. (1988) 'Rethinking the Aims of Higher Education', in Eggins, H. (ed.) Restructuring Higher Education, (Buckingham:SRHE/OU Press) Archer, L, Hutchins, M and Ross, A, (2003) Higher Education and Social Class: Issues of exclusion and inclusion (London & New York: Routledge/Falmer) See: Scott, P. (1995) The Meanings of Mass Higher Education (Buckingham: OU Press/ SRHE), also Wright, P. W. G. (1988) 'Rethinking the Aims of Higher Education', in Eggins, H. (ed.) Restructuring Higher Education, (Buckingham:SRHE/OU Press) Archer, L, Hutchins, M and Ross, A, (2003) Higher Education and Social Class: Issues of exclusion and inclusion (London & New York: Routledge/Falmer)

8. 8 Structural persistence: aspects But change is always in a context: e.g: Taken-for-granted assumptions, dominant models, implicit values, ‘myth’, what seems ‘natural’ The logic of previous actions, institutional structure and ways of dong things The ‘lessons of experience’ Vested interests, political ‘no-go’ areas, etc See: Wright, P. W. G. (1989). ‘Access or Exclusion ? Comments on the history and future prospects of continuing education in England, London’, Studies in Higher Education 14(1) 23-40. In my view, there is no comprehensive and up-to-date introduction to the history of UK (or English) higher education. The following historical accounts are available: Green, V. H. H., (1969) The Universities (Harmondsworth, Middlesex) is accurate and scholarly, though now very dated. Stewart, W. A. C., (1989), Higher Education in Post-war Britain, (London: Macmillan) is detailed and more recent, but is limited to the post-war period and, in my view, lacks overall coherence. Halsey, A.H. (1992), The Decline of Donnish Dominion: The British Academic Professions in the Twentieth Century (Oxford, Clarendon Press) is a stimulating sociological argument drawing on some historical data rather than a history. Lowe, R. (1988) Education in the Post-War Years: A Social History (London: Routledge) is, of course, only partly concerned with higher education yet provides some interesting and perceptive insights.See: Wright, P. W. G. (1989). ‘Access or Exclusion ? Comments on the history and future prospects of continuing education in England, London’, Studies in Higher Education 14(1) 23-40. In my view, there is no comprehensive and up-to-date introduction to the history of UK (or English) higher education. The following historical accounts are available: Green, V. H. H., (1969) The Universities (Harmondsworth, Middlesex) is accurate and scholarly, though now very dated. Stewart, W. A. C., (1989), Higher Education in Post-war Britain, (London: Macmillan) is detailed and more recent, but is limited to the post-war period and, in my view, lacks overall coherence. Halsey, A.H. (1992), The Decline of Donnish Dominion: The British Academic Professions in the Twentieth Century (Oxford, Clarendon Press) is a stimulating sociological argument drawing on some historical data rather than a history. Lowe, R. (1988) Education in the Post-War Years: A Social History (London: Routledge) is, of course, only partly concerned with higher education yet provides some interesting and perceptive insights.

9. 9 Structural tendencies: The Anglo-Scottish contrast Consider the following. At the Act of Union (1707), England had an estimated population [inc Wales] of around five and a half million and two universities: Oxford and Cambridge Scotland, had an estimated one million and four universities (St Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen [technically two distinct colleges] and Edinburgh. This, alone, suggests that universities played distinctively different roles in the two countries (a distinction still evident almost 300 years later) and illustrates some of the lasting influence of structural tendencies. Source for Scottish population estimate: Your Scottish Ancestors Traced website (http://www.ancestor.abel.co.uk/stats.html) Source for English population estimate:Timeline: 1700 to 1800 (http://www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk/usfeatures/timeline/to1800.html) On the distinctively character of Scottish higher education see: Davie, G. E., (1964), The Democratic Intellect: Scotland and her Universities in the Nineteenth Century (Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press) Source for Scottish population estimate: Your Scottish Ancestors Traced website (http://www.ancestor.abel.co.uk/stats.html) Source for English population estimate:Timeline: 1700 to 1800 (http://www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk/usfeatures/timeline/to1800.html) On the distinctively character of Scottish higher education see: Davie, G. E., (1964), The Democratic Intellect: Scotland and her Universities in the Nineteenth Century (Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press)

10. 10 Persistent themes Contemporary topics that represent persistent themes Wider participation Vocational HE The language of success and achievement Underlying issues: These three topics clearly raise issues linked to a long-standing, persistent and frequently noted trend in English higher education – ‘Academic Drift’. This term was coined by John Pratt and Tyrrell Burgess, almost 30 years ago, to identify a powerful tendency for innovatory and critical forms of higher education in England to lose their critical character and be assimilated into the dominant consensus (Pratt, J and Burgess,T, 1974, Polytechnics: a Report London: Pitman). They described ’Academic Drift’ as,: “Broadly … (consisting) …of the aspiration to university status, and of institutions to take on the attributes and objectives of autonomy. Non-university colleges seek freedom from public control discipline and from the discipline of external validation. They establish the structure of subject departments and hanker after professorships. They increase the commitments to research. They try to become as much like autonomous institutions as possible, thus eschewing innovation. They may begin to reject students who were previously accepted and transfer elsewhere many of the courses they previously offered.” (Pratt, J. (1997), The Polytechnic Experiment: 1965-1992 , p.11 (Buckingham: the SRHE/ Open Press).Underlying issues: These three topics clearly raise issues linked to a long-standing, persistent and frequently noted trend in English higher education – ‘Academic Drift’. This term was coined by John Pratt and Tyrrell Burgess, almost 30 years ago, to identify a powerful tendency for innovatory and critical forms of higher education in England to lose their critical character and be assimilated into the dominant consensus (Pratt, J and Burgess,T, 1974, Polytechnics: a Report London: Pitman). They described ’Academic Drift’ as,: “Broadly … (consisting) …of the aspiration to university status, and of institutions to take on the attributes and objectives of autonomy. Non-university colleges seek freedom from public control discipline and from the discipline of external validation. They establish the structure of subject departments and hanker after professorships. They increase the commitments to research. They try to become as much like autonomous institutions as possible, thus eschewing innovation. They may begin to reject students who were previously accepted and transfer elsewhere many of the courses they previously offered.” (Pratt, J. (1997), The Polytechnic Experiment: 1965-1992 , p.11 (Buckingham: the SRHE/ Open Press).

11. 11 The special circumstances of English universities Oxbridge pre-dates the State; yet has never been totally reconstituted Nonetheless, a long, informal Oxbridge (later, other ‘top’ universities) /State relationship of trust, tacit understanding and assumed coincidence of purpose (cf 1931 the Sir Walter Buchanan Riddell incident) C19th reforms carried through with State support Industrial revolution largely by-passed English universities: economic involvement slow and insecure: even professions or state service - slow to develop: anti-vocationalism, ‘academic drift’ (John Pratt &Tyrrell Burgess); rise of powerful, independent PSBs Technology only fully accepted into universities from 1950s The ‘long English hiatus’: Cambridge 1294 – London 1836 On Sir Walter Riddell’s (Chairman of the UGC) successful rejection during the 1931 financial crisis of the Treasury’s proposed cut in the grant to the universities see: Caswell, J (1985) Government and the Universities in Britain: programme and performance 1960-1980 (London: CUP). For a brief analysis of the special character and great power of Professional Bodies in England and their tendency to assume what, in other countries, would be functions of the state see: Siegrist H (1994) ‘The Professions, State and Government in Theory and History’ (1994) “The Professions, State and Government in Theory and History” in Becher T (ed) Governments and Professional Education (Buckingham, Open University Press) Burrage, M. (1984) ‘Practitioners. Professors and the State in France, the USA and England’ in Goodlad, S. (Ed) Education and the Professions: Quis custodiet ….? (Guildford:SRHE-Nelson) and the following collection of essays: Burrage M and Torstendahl F (eds) (1990) Professions in Theory and History: Rethinking the Study of the Professions (London, Sage) On Sir Walter Riddell’s (Chairman of the UGC) successful rejection during the 1931 financial crisis of the Treasury’s proposed cut in the grant to the universities see: Caswell, J (1985) Government and the Universities in Britain: programme and performance 1960-1980 (London: CUP). For a brief analysis of the special character and great power of Professional Bodies in England and their tendency to assume what, in other countries, would be functions of the state see: Siegrist H (1994) ‘The Professions, State and Government in Theory and History’ (1994) “The Professions, State and Government in Theory and History” in Becher T (ed) Governments and Professional Education (Buckingham, Open University Press) Burrage, M. (1984) ‘Practitioners. Professors and the State in France, the USA and England’ in Goodlad, S. (Ed) Education and the Professions: Quis custodiet ….? (Guildford:SRHE-Nelson) and the following collection of essays: Burrage M and Torstendahl F (eds) (1990) Professions in Theory and History: Rethinking the Study of the Professions (London, Sage)

12. 12 Distinctive features of English HE: the ‘Oxbridge model c. 1850 University entails an exclusive, shared residential experience to socialise and ‘finish’ a national, homogeneous, elite - linguistic cues (Seen by some middle-class parents as a costly induction of their sons into aristocratic extravagance and debauchery.) A nursery (esp Oxford) for the, practice, culture and clergy of the Anglican church A setting for intellectual brilliance for a few The university a thing apart- mysterious and inaccessible by nature: Hardy’s ‘Christminster’ For examples of perceptions of the uses of English universities see: Seth Ward, Vindiciae Academiarum: containing some brief Animadversions upon Mr. Webster’s book, Stiled the Examination of Academies (Oxford, the University Printer), 1654, p.45. And, also Wilhelm Dibelius, (1929) England (London: Cape) (German original, 1923)(Both of the excerpts are attached to the covering letter, with this PowerPoint file). The social chasm between Oxbridge and that of even a skilled craftsmen in the 19th century is captured acutely by Thomas Hardy in Jude the Obscure. The hero, Jude Fawley, stonemason and self-taught classicist tries, hopelessly, to gain admittance to a Christminster (Oxford) College. In his brief letter of rejection, the Master of the College writes: "... and judging from your description of yourself as a working man, I ventured to think that you will have a much better chance of success in life by remaining your own sphere and sticking to your own your trade and by adopting any other course. That, therefore, is what I advise you to do" (Hardy, T, (1896) ) Jude the Obscure (London, Macmillan [New Wessex edition], 1974, p.136). For examples of perceptions of the uses of English universities see: Seth Ward, Vindiciae Academiarum: containing some brief Animadversions upon Mr. Webster’s book, Stiled the Examination of Academies (Oxford, the University Printer), 1654, p.45. And, also Wilhelm Dibelius, (1929) England (London: Cape) (German original, 1923)(Both of the excerpts are attached to the covering letter, with this PowerPoint file). The social chasm between Oxbridge and that of even a skilled craftsmen in the 19th century is captured acutely by Thomas Hardy in Jude the Obscure. The hero, Jude Fawley, stonemason and self-taught classicist tries, hopelessly, to gain admittance to a Christminster (Oxford) College. In his brief letter of rejection, the Master of the College writes: "... and judging from your description of yourself as a working man, I ventured to think that you will have a much better chance of success in life by remaining your own sphere and sticking to your own your trade and by adopting any other course. That, therefore, is what I advise you to do" (Hardy, T, (1896) ) Jude the Obscure (London, Macmillan [New Wessex edition], 1974, p.136).

13. 13 English HE: exclusion and elitism Exclusion and scarcity the defining characteristics of the dominant university tradition not accidental attributes: epitomised by the rise and spread of classified Honours Achievement characterised in terms of ‘excellence-minus’ NOT ‘sufficiency-plus’ Until 1960s participation very low - lowest in Europe in late c.19th– probably below Tsarist Russia Students in C19 England more from aristocracy, gentry and urban rich - less middle class - than Continental Europe English HE shaped by social inequality: a costly residential experience: coexistence of undemanding socialisation and competitive intellectual ‘brilliance’ On great exclusiveness of English universities in the nineteenth century see: Lowe, R. (1983)’The Expansion of Higher Education in England’ in K. H. Jarausch (Ed), (1983)The Transformation of Higher Learning: the expansion and diversification of higher learning and professionalization in England, Germany, Russia and the USA , 1860-1930 (Chicago: Univ of Chicago Press) Also, Jarausch, K. H., (1983) ‘Education and social change: some comparative perspectives,’ in Jarausch K. H. (Ed) (1983), op cit)On great exclusiveness of English universities in the nineteenth century see: Lowe, R. (1983)’The Expansion of Higher Education in England’ in K. H. Jarausch (Ed), (1983)The Transformation of Higher Learning: the expansion and diversification of higher learning and professionalization in England, Germany, Russia and the USA , 1860-1930 (Chicago: Univ of Chicago Press) Also, Jarausch, K. H., (1983) ‘Education and social change: some comparative perspectives,’ in Jarausch K. H. (Ed) (1983), op cit)

14. 14 English HE: ‘expanded elitism’ or diversity? Latent paradox: how expand a system based on shared standards in which ‘excellence’ is significantly defined by its scarcity? The ‘Robbins trap’(Martin Trow) The myth of comparability of standards SEE: Sanderson, M (1999) Education and Economic Decline in Britain, 1870 to the 1990s (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1999). For a theoretical consideration of the concept of an ‘educational system’ exemplified through the use e of material from several countries – but mainly from England - see: Müller, D., Ringer, F. and Simon, B. (Eds.) (1987), The Rise of Modern Educational Systems: Structural change and social reproduction, 1870-1920. (This volume includes an article by of particular relevance to the argument of this presentation. It is, Lowe, R (1987) ‘Structural Change in English Higher Education, 1870-1930’)SEE: Sanderson, M (1999) Education and Economic Decline in Britain, 1870 to the 1990s (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1999). For a theoretical consideration of the concept of an ‘educational system’ exemplified through the use e of material from several countries – but mainly from England - see: Müller, D., Ringer, F. and Simon, B. (Eds.) (1987), The Rise of Modern Educational Systems: Structural change and social reproduction, 1870-1920. (This volume includes an article by of particular relevance to the argument of this presentation. It is, Lowe, R (1987) ‘Structural Change in English Higher Education, 1870-1930’)

15. 15 Change and expansion Post-war settlement and HE: the policy framework Robbins (October 1963): Growth by expanding an elite system rather than by differentiation –’Expanded elitism’? ‘the Robbins Trap’ (Martin Trow) Made possible by measures that created and sustained a national, largely residential HE market: e.g., 1960 Anderson grants report and fees policy Partly contradicted by Tony Crosland's-Sir Toby Weaver’s polytechnic policy (announced March 1965 in Crosland’s ‘Woolwich’ speech) See;: Trow, M (1989) ‘The Robbins Trap: British Attitudes and the Limits of Expansion’, Higher Education Quarterly, 43, 1, pp.55-73 On the polytechnic policy and its background see: Pratt, J. and Burgess, (1974) Polytechnics: a report (London: Pitman); And on Sir Toby Weaver’s contribution to the policy: Burgess, T. (1973) ‘Knight Errant’, New Society, 28 June; Weaver, Sir T. (1994), ‘’‘Knowledge alone gets you nowhere’, Capability 1 (1): 6-12 The ‘Anderson report’ is: Anderson, Sir C. (1960). Grants to students (Report of the committee appointed by the Minister of Education and Secretary of State for Scotland in June 1958) (London: HMSO) See;: Trow, M (1989) ‘The Robbins Trap: British Attitudes and the Limits of Expansion’, Higher Education Quarterly, 43, 1, pp.55-73 On the polytechnic policy and its background see: Pratt, J. and Burgess, (1974) Polytechnics: a report (London: Pitman); And on Sir Toby Weaver’s contribution to the policy: Burgess, T. (1973) ‘Knight Errant’, New Society, 28 June; Weaver, Sir T. (1994), ‘’‘Knowledge alone gets you nowhere’, Capability 1 (1): 6-12 The ‘Anderson report’ is: Anderson, Sir C. (1960). Grants to students (Report of the committee appointed by the Minister of Education and Secretary of State for Scotland in June 1958) (London: HMSO)

16. 16 What now? Is diversity simply the road to hierarchy? Is organisational hierarchy ‘better’/’worse’ than implicit reputation hierarchy? How define the good independently of the scarce? Beware of using HE primary as a means for social engineering

17. 17 Changing HE: result of structural tendencies? The long university hiatus New, C19th civic colleges and universities established, often on Scottish models stressed local needs, technical and applied subjects and often embraced provincial medical schools but slow to grow under pressure to provide general culture and prepare candidates for new, public examinations (civil service, army, etc.) See: Jones, D. R, (1988)The Origins of Civic Universities: Manchester, Leeds and Liverpool (London: Routledge) ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. Presenter’s contact details: Dr Peter WG Wright 22, Sidney Square Stepney London E1 2EY Tel: 020 7790 1458 Mobile: 07899 76293 E-Mail: pwright@dsl.pipex.com (NB: the mobile tel no and email address have both recently changed) See: Jones, D. R, (1988)The Origins of Civic Universities: Manchester, Leeds and Liverpool (London: Routledge) ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. Presenter’s contact details: Dr Peter WG Wright 22, Sidney Square Stepney London E1 2EY Tel: 020 7790 1458 Mobile: 07899 76293 E-Mail: pwright@dsl.pipex.com (NB: the mobile tel no and email address have both recently changed)