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Chapter Three

Chapter Three. The Psychological Approach: A Profusion of Theories. Psychology. The scientific study of mind and behavior. Uses the scientific method as a means of gaining knowledge. Investigates internal mental events such as reasoning, language, and memory.

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Chapter Three

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  1. Chapter Three The Psychological Approach: A Profusion of Theories

  2. Psychology • The scientific study of mind and behavior. • Uses the scientific method as a means of gaining knowledge. • Investigates internal mental events such as reasoning, language, and memory. • Also investigates external behaviors such as talking, walking, and grasping.

  3. The Scientific Method • A theory is a general understanding of the world that organizes a set of facts and aids us in understanding how the world works. • A hypothesis is a more specific statement about the world that is frequently derived from a hypothesis and can be tested.

  4. Experiments • Scientists use experiments to test hypotheses. • An experiment must have at least two variables. • The independent variable is manipulated by the researcher. • The dependent variable is measured by the researcher.

  5. Experiments • An experiment must also have at least two conditions or groups. • The experimental group receives the independent variable. • The control group does not.

  6. Experiments – An Example • Theory: Practice facilitates problem solving. • Hypothesis: Doing logic problems before being tested will increase scores on a subsequent logic test.

  7. Experiments – An Example • Experimental group: • 20 participants. • Allowed to practice solving problems for 10 minutes. • Then given a test problem. • Independent variable is practice. • Control group: • 20 participants. • Not allowed to practice. • Given the same test problem. • Dependent variable is scores on the test.

  8. Experiments – An Example • Scores on the dependent variable for the two groups are compared. • If test scores in the experimental group are significantly higher, then the hypothesis is supported.

  9. Voluntarism • Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) is founder. • View that the mind is made up of elements. • The elements are assembled into wholes through an act of will. • Influenced by atoms and molecules of chemistry.

  10. Introspection • Method used by the voluntarists and other early psychologists. • Means “inner looking.” Consists of subjective self-report of mental states. • Fraught with difficulties.

  11. Structuralism • Edward Titchener (1867-1927) considered founder. • Shares the beliefs that mind is made of elements and use of introspection with voluntarism. • But viewed element combination occurring through passive mechanical laws.

  12. Functionalism • Closely associated with William James (1842-1910). • Focus is on mental processes and functions rather than elements. • Idea of a stream of consciousness. Thought is flowing and changing, not static.

  13. Gestalt Psychology • Contributors include Wertheimer (1880-1943), Kohler (1887-1967), and Koffka (1886-1941). • View that mind consists of wholes that are more than the sum of their parts, described as a gestalt. • Method was phenomenology, a subjective description of an external stimulus.

  14. Laws of Perceptual Organization • Parts group together based on their relationships. • Parts that are (a) proximal, (b) similar, and form (c) closed or (d) good figures tend to go together.

  15. Insight Learning • Initial attempts to solve a problem fail. • Problem is put aside for some time. • Solution occurs rapidly, perhaps through unconscious processes, and is then verified. Kohler’s chimp incubates on a problem.

  16. Psychoanalytic Psychology • Established by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). • Mind is made up of “mini-minds” that compete for control. • Three states of consciousness: • Conscious • Preconscious • Unconscious

  17. Psychoanalytic Psychology • In addition, three primary mental structures: • Id. Runs on the pleasure principle. • Superego. Runs on the idealistic principle. • Ego. Runs on the reality principle.

  18. Behaviorism • The mind of an organism (O) is a “Black Box.” It cannot be studied. • Focus is instead on behaviors or responses (R). • Responses can be controlled through stimuli (S).

  19. Types of Learning • Classical conditioning: • Unconditioned stimulus (US). • Unconditioned response (UR). • Conditioned stimulus (CS). • Conditioned response (CR). • Operant conditioning: • Reinforcement. • Punishment.

  20. Interdisciplinary Crossroads: Studying Grouping Quantitatively • Kubovy and Wagemans (1995) showed six lattice types to observers. • They reported which way the dots grouped. • The likelihood of grouping was plotted as a function of the distances between dots. • The resulting attraction function showed an exponential increase.

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