Welcome to Week 2 of Functional Curriculum: SPED 534

1. Welcome to Week 2 of Functional Curriculum: SPED 534 • Updates to Wiki SPED 534- • Presentations • Assignments (Templates & Articles) • All links should be working, please let me know if they are not • Article Review #1 Due October 12th Next Week, Articles posted Remember in Assignments Section

2. Article Reviews • Look at the rubric to ensure high probability of doing well. • Make sure you complete each section with complete sentences. • Do not include Yes or No in your answer. • Write that “the author did or did not……” • Be concise, but make sure that you answer the question well. • If you feel like the author did not explain something well, tell me what would have been helpful to know. • Remember that they usually have limited space which editors make even more limited! • Most articles have an email address for correspondence with the author, use this for topics/tools you are interested in • People do email the authors & authors do respond!

3. Treatment fidelity/integrity • How the author(s) measured the degree to which the intervention was implemented the way it was designed. • Examples: Checklist of steps conducted in an intervention, an observer recording the presence of the intervention • Not to be confused with inter-rater reliability or agreement (IOA)- this is having 2 observers record the dependent variables (outcomes, behaviors)

4. APA format for citations of Journal Articles Author Last Name, First Initial. Second Initial., & 2nd Author Last Name, First Initial. Second Initial. (Year). Title of article with only the first word capitalized unless followed by colon: Then next word capitalized. Name of Journal Italicized & All Major Words Capitalized, Volume # Italicized, page #s. Loman, S.L., Rodriguez, B.J., & Horner, R.H. (2010). Sustainability of a targeted intervention package: First step to success in Oregon. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 18(3), 178-191.

5. Systematic Instruction: Guiding Principles • These principles guide educators in developing instructional plans that have the greatest likelihood of student learning: • Teaching meaningful and functional skills, • Facilitating attention to relevant stimuli, • Providing frequent opportunities to respond • Providing a positive learning environment Halle et al., 2004

6. Teaching Applications Stimulus Control Prompting Fading Shaping Chaining

7. Teaching is… • Teaching is the process of arranging instructional stimuli that result in behavior change for the learner. • Teaching requires the establishment of a learning context. • Teaching requires behavior change on the part of the learner. • Teaching students to respond to specific stimuli is a teacher’s basic job.

8. Basic elements of behavior analysis • Behavior (response) • Antecedent (antecedent stimuli) • Consequence • Setting event • These describe the behavior within an environmental context • Summary statement or testable hypothesis

9. Nine Principles of Human Behavior • Stimulus Control • Positive Reinforcement • Negative Reinforcement • Positive Punishment • Negative Punishment • Extinction • Transfer • Generalization • Maintenance

10. Stimulus Control • Stimulus control refers to change in the likelihood of a response when a stimulus is presented. • The stimulus is a signal that if the response is performed, a predictable outcome (consequence) is likely. • If a person responds one way in the presence of a stimulus and another in its absence, than that stimulus is said to “control” behavior. • A traffic light is an example

11. Stimulus Control Terms • Stimulus: Any event, action or object perceptible to the senses. • Discriminative Stimulus (Sd): • Any stimulus that signals that a specific response is more likely to be followed by a reinforcer (S+) or punisher (S-). • Delta Stimulus (S ): • Any stimulus that signals that a specific response is unlikely to be followed by a reinforcer.

12. Sd or (S-delta): ?? • A baby learns that saying “mama” is: • (a) reinforced in the presence of the adult with glasses and curly hair & • (b) usually results in the disappearance of the adult with a beard. • For the Response, “Mama” • Sd= __? • S-delta= ___?

13. Identify the Discriminative Stimulus (Sd) • 1st grader says “went” in the presence of a flashcard with the letters W-E-N-T, which results in teacher praise. • 1st grader says “went” in the presence of the letters C-A-M-E, which does not result in teacher praise.

14. Why is stimulus control important?For each example define a response and its controlling stimulus • Reading • Math • Social initiations • Joining a playground game • Getting help from an adult • Getting a cookie at snack • Following the instruction to “line up”

15. Discrimination Learning • Discrimination based on relatively informal or imprecise patterns of reinforcement usually develops slowly and is often imperfect. • Ex. Babies calling all men with beard “daddy” • Student says went when sees “w-a-n-t” or “w-e-t” • Stipulation • Importance of teaching range of positive and negative examples. • Salient features of stimulus should be emphasized • Often times students learn based on some other feature than what wanting them to focus on • Ex. Student says the word “went” because that flashcard has a smudge on it, or the word “came” because it starts with a C.

16. How to develop stimulus control(Note what you ADD to the natural context) • Begin by pretest, then defining (a) the new response[R], (b) the stimulus that should control the response[S1], and (c) the natural reward [Sr+]. • Pretest to document absence of Sd  R • Present the stimulus (S1) • Prompt the new response (R) • Deliver a reward (Sr+) + extra reward • Withhold the reward when either • R1 occurs when S1 has not be presented, or • R1 does not occur when S1 is presented.

17. Stimulus control and teaching • For any skill, teach a) what, b) when, c) why. • What = the new response (skill) • When = the stimulus that signals when to perform the new response • Why = what is the likely consequence (reward)

18. Examples: Target Response/Discriminative Stimulus • T ---> /t/ ( b --> /b/, /d/ ) • ---> “triangle” ( ) • Child cries --> parent picks up and comforts • Smile --> social initiation • Student raises hand -> teacher calls on student

19. Building Stimulus Control • Teach saying “thank you” when someone gives you something. • Test to determine if skill exists • Identify “pre-requisites” • Define “natural” behavioral elements • receive --> “thank you” --> “you’re welcome” • What do you add to teach • Add prompt (“say thank you”) • Add reward (“excellent job saying thank you”) • Multiple opportunities to practice (fade extras) • Test to determine if skill is learned

20. Teaching and Stimulus Control • Define the naturally occurring pattern • Setting Event -> Stimulus -> Response -> Consequence • Define what you will “add” to assist learning. • Setting Event -> Stimulus -> Response -> Consequence Prompt Extra Reward or Correction

21. Teaching and Stimulus Control: Examples • Setting Event -> Stimulus -> Response-> Consequence • None -> “car” -> /car/ -> info from reading • What do you add?

22. ConsequencesSetting Event -> Stimulus -> Response -> Consequence (Contingency) • Consequences follow a target response • Contingent consequences are delivered only after the target response occurs. • Consequences affect the future likelihood of the response. • Rewarding consequences increase the likelihood of the target response. • Aversive consequences decrease the likelihood of the target response.

23. Consequences • There are 5 major classes of consequences • Positive reinforcement • Negative reinforcement • Positive punishment • Negative punishment • Extinction • To determine the type/class of consequence: • Examine the effect on future occurrence of the behavior (increase or decrease?) • Examine the action involved in the consequence (give/remove/withhold)

24. Consequences

25. ConsequencesExamples (target response is underlined) • Over time Jim (age 9) has become less likely to push his way to the front of the line during recess since the teachers took away recess time for each instance of pushing. • Elaine volunteered answers in class when the teacher asked for volunteers, but about 25% of the time she would be wrong, and the teacher would scowl and tell her she was wrong. She now volunteers less often.

26. ConsequencesExamples (target response is underlined) • Over time, Darin (age 5) has become more likely to line up when given the instruction “time to line up” as a result of contingent praise from Ms. Dawson when he lines up. • Darin screamed, and Ms. Dawson said “Darin you be quiet.” He immediately stopped screaming and smiled. Over time, however, his rate of screaming in class has increased.

27. ConsequencesExamples (target response is underlined) • Over time Ellen’s talking out in class decreased during instructional presentations as a result of everyone ignoring her talk-outs (previously she received a lot of peer attention). • Over time Ellen has become more on task during independent seat work periods since Mr. Evan’s started giving out “Worker Rewards” for students who were on-task.

28. ConsequencesExamples (target response is underlined) • Over time Jim (age 9) has become less likely to push his way to the front of the line during recess since the teachers took away recess time for each instance of pushing. • Elaine volunteered answers in class when the teacher asked for volunteers, but about 25% of the time she would be wrong, and the teacher would scowl and tell her she was wrong. She now volunteers less often.

29. ConsequencesExamples (target response is underlined) • Over time Elaine was more likely to scream when given a math assignment as a result of the assignment being removed as soon as she screamed. • Tyron became more likely to become quiet, look down and whimper when other children would talk to him as a result of other children leaving him alone when he engaged in these behaviors.

30. ConsequencesExamples (target response is underlined) • Gwen’s attendance at choir has decreased as a result of Ms. Emerson’s repeated congratulations on Gwen’s “wonderful voice.” • Eric (age 8) has become more likely to tease and taunt Angelissa even though Angelissa consistently hits or yells at Eric when he teases her.

31. Effective Instruction of New Behaviors • Errorless Learning • Prompts and Cues • Response Shaping • Chaining Teaching New Behaviors can be Thought of as Developing Stimulus Control

32. Effective Instruction:We Must Determine the Nature of the Problem • Behavior not in repertoire of student -SKILL DEFICIT Teach HOW • Student can do behavior but does not-PERFORANCE DEFICIT teach WHEN & WHY Does the student not know how or do they know how but choose not to? Focus

33. Discrimination Learning • Discrimination based on relatively informal or imprecise patterns of reinforcement usually develops slowly and is often imperfect. • Ex. Babies calling all men with beard “daddy” • Student says went when sees “w-a-n-t” or “w-e-t” • Stipulation • Importance of teaching range of positive and negative examples. • Salient features of stimulus should be emphasized • Often times students learn based on some other feature than what wanting them to focus on • Ex. Student says the word “went” because that flashcard has a smudge on it, or the word “came” because it starts with a C.

34. Errorless learning Definition • Using prompts to preclude a student from making an incorrect response • when students are not learning effectively and efficiently with other procedures 1 effective 2 positive teacher/student interaction3 fewer inappropriate social behaviors4 students learn little from repeated errors SUCCESS BEGETS SUCCESS AND FAILURE BEGETS FAILURE Use Rationale

35. Errorless learning • Train discrimination without errors (shaping stimulus control) • Refined form of decreasing prompts • Alterations of features of the stimulus (Sd) OR Stimulus property • Student’s name on white card other student’s name on black card. • Card gradually darkened. • No incorrect choices and discriminated on relevant stimulus properties.

36. Error Correction • When errors occur, correct immediately with minimal feedback • Provide a second opportunity to respond correctly • Reinforce (reward) immediately! • Must be explicit / specific.

37. Teaching Applications: Prompts • Defined: • Any antecedent stimulus ADDED to the presentation that increases the likelihood of correct responding. • Examples: • Verbal, gesture, physical, embedded (visual, auditory) • Modeling • Precorrection

38. Types of Prompts • Verbal Prompts • Rules: “Nouns are a person, place, or thing” • Instructions—when specific • Hints • Visual • Pictures, examples of correct answers, number lines, multiplication charts, visual schedules, diagram of steps, scripts • Modeling • Physical Prompting/ Guidance • Partial, Full

39. Prompts increase teaching efficiency • Use extra cues to increase number of correct responses • Increased Responses= • Increased Reinforcement= • Increased Speed of Learning Behavior

40. What makes a good prompt? • Increases likelihood of correct responding • Focuses attention on relevant features of task (Sd) • Ease of delivery • Ease of removal across trials • Good prompts are determined by the demands of the task AND the presenting skills of the learner. • As weak as possible (least intrusive) • Should be faded as rapidly as possible

41. Guidelines for Selecting Prompts • 1) Select the least intrusive, effective prompt • 2) Combine prompts if necessary • 3) select natural prompts and those related to the behavior • 4) Provide only after students are attending • 5) Provide in a supportive, instructive manner before response • 6) Fade as soon as possible • 7) Plan fading procedures beforehand

42. Prompt Examples:What prompts might be useful? • Natural Sd  Target Behavior  Consequence • (Prompt) • Teaching cursive writing • Teaching swallowing • Teaching Carl how to ask to enter a wall ball game. • Teaching Emily to move from one task to another without help. • Teaching Phil to wait at snack without grabbing food.

43. Fading • Defined: Stimulus Fading • The gradual reduction or removal of a prompt. • Fading is a process for transferring stimulus control. • As soon as you decide to use reinforcement you need to begin planning how to get rid of it -- fading • Examples: • Change in physical features (dashed lines) • Change in specificity of verbal prompts (“pick up the screwdriver”…to… “what’s next”) • Time delay (“Prompt+Sd”….to… “Prompt….Sd”)

44. Establishing Stimulus Control • Time delay: • begin with a prompt that works and then increase the DELAY between presentation of the target stimulus and the added prompt • fixed • Progressive • Sd +Prompt  response • Sd ….Prompt  response • Sd ….response

45. Fading Prompts • Increasing Assistance (Least-to-Most Prompts)—start with least intrusive and add more intrusive if necessary. • Graduated Guidance (Hand-over-hand, physical guidance)—reducing full guidance to “shadowing”. • Time Delay—wait several seconds before prompting to allow student to respond. • Decreasing Assistance (Most-to-Least Prompts)—move to less intrusive prompt when behavior occurs reliably

46. How would you fade these prompts? • Verbal prompt “move it to the tens” during two digit addition to prompt carrying. • Verbal prompt “ask nicely” when prompting Elsie to ask for toys/food, etc. • Physical prompt “touch on arm” as student points to communication board. • Gesture prompt, pointing to the correct color when asked to touch “yellow, etc” • Embedded prompt, dashed lines for writing

47. Teaching Applications:Shaping • Defined • Teaching new behaviors through differential reinforcement of successive approximations of correct responding. • Differential reinforcement for shaping means that responses that meet a certain criterion are reinforced, while those that do not meet the criterion are not. • The Sd and reward are constant. What changes is the rule for delivering the reward. The goal is to improve the precision of the new skill.

48. Response Shaping • 1. Behavior is present, but not fluent in the presence of the “signal” • 2. Focus on CONSEQUENCES -requires powerful reinforcers -use differential reinforcement • 3. Systematic reinforcement of successive approximations toward the target • behavior -specify dimensions of the target/goal behavior -reinforce slight improvements/changes -takes time -avoid practicing errors

49. Establishing Stimulus Control: Teaching New Behaviors Shaping: Students learn new things when a teacher “shapes” an existing response into the desired behavior. Advantages of shaping: • faster than waiting for a correct response • learner succeeds at a high rate • still kind of slow because you are waiting for the learner

50. Designing Successful Shaping Programs • Identify the terminal behavior (end result) • Identify the initial behavior • Identify intermediate behaviors • Determine the size of steps toward the goal • Reinforce successive approximations of the behavior • Monitor progress • Example student accessing a switch