Guide to essay writing

1. Guide to essay writing Katharine Betts Sociology kbetts@swin.edu.au

2. The universal & essential Argument Evidence Adequate research Clear expression Using feedback The particular & important Presentation Form of documentation Style Introduction & overview: essay features

3. The universal and essential features of essays

4. Your informed opinion Did the Tampa help the Coalition win in 2001? Are socially anxious people more likely to use email than the phone? Are computers useful to people with disabilities? 1 An argument

5. Housing Management and Policy course Simplified examples • How have changes in the operating environment for social housing affected your agency’s organisational structure and operating procedures? • Do the concepts of organisational culture and subculture help explain how an organisation works (or doesn't work)? Use examples from your agency. • How does the skills shortage affect your agency’s capacity to do its job effectively?

6. Ways of telling students about arguments • An informed opinion • A thesis • A logically linked sequence of points establishing a more general proposition • A piece of writing with an introduction, a middle and a conclusion • A piece of writing with a structure • ‘An essay must have a unity’

7. Example: Why did Labor win in 2007? Answer: There were many reasons why Labor won the 2007 election but the main one was voter dissatisfaction with the Work Choices legislation. It’s a reasoned argument —plausible AND considers alternatives. It’s grounded in the evidence — you have some facts to back up your claims.

8. 2 Evidence An informed opinion is based on reason and evidence. What sort of evidence counts? • Relevant • Other people must be able to check it Adequate research means looking for evidence for and against your argument.

9. Documentation Telling readers about your evidence Helping them find it Two main styles of referencing • Harvard • Numbered footnotes

10. 3 Enough reading––how much research is adequate? Working on an argument means • Developing your ideas • Looking for evidence to test these ideas How much is enough? You’ve read enough when you can support your argument and show you’ve considered alternative arguments. A rule of thumb Read (and use) between six and 15 sources for a 3000 word essay.

11. 4 Clear expression

12. 4 Clear expression — why is this often a problem? Language registers • Formal • In discussions yesterday, the Federal Cabinet focused on the formulation of amendments to workers’ compensation legislation. • Standard • Cabinet yesterday discussed how to word changes to the laws on workers’ compensation. • Informal • Yesterday, Canberra pollies worked on the new workers’ comp laws. Source: Style Manual (2002: 52)

13. Clear expression in the standard register How to achieve it—specific advice: • Write drafts. • Think about paragraphs. • Use short sentences. • Use finite verbs. • If there’s risk of ambiguity, use nouns instead of pronouns. • Use the active voice. • Give concrete examples. • Redraft and cut out needless words.

14. 4.1 Paragraphs and topic sentences • One idea, one paragraph: eg why might Labor have won the 2007 Australian election? • Dissatisfaction with the war in Iraq. • The voters had lost interest in the culture wars, which had served the Coalition so well in previous elections. • Work Choices legislation. • Don’t make a paragraph too long. Even if you are still on the same idea start a new one after 200 words.

15. Paragraphing—one idea one paragraph • Break up long paragraphs (one idea, several paras is fine, one para with two or more is not) • Introduce paragraphs with topic sentences

16. Topic sentence for para on Iraq war • Australia has been involved in the Iraq war since it began in March 2003. At first, this involvement was a supported by many voters, most of whom believed the story of weapons of mass destruction [reference]…. But by early 2007 the war seemed to have dragged on far too long and to have done little to reduce the threat of terrorism. Indeed many believed it had increased the threat [reference]. However, dissatisfaction with the war was not a first-order issue in the minds of most voters [reference]. …

17. Phrases to link new paras to former ones • Linking phrases for the start of new paragraphs “The literature points to [or Table 1 shows] at least three reasons why ….. “First there is… “Second there is…“ “As we have seen ….” “Despite Brown’s findings on improved affordability (2006:35) median rents did not fall in …” “There are still many economists who oppose…”

18. More linking phrases “Others, such as Smith and Wilson (2010) have stressed the disadvantages of….” “Nevertheless, there is something odd about the claim that…” “Soros (2003) is another supporter of the view that…” “These facts suggest that stimulus spending…” “In short, the distinction between X and Y is not helpful in this….” “Theories explaining the decrease in housing affordability are so diverse that….

19. Summary on paragraphing • One idea one paragraph. • More than one paragraph for one idea is OK; two or more ideas is not. • Start a new paragraph after 200 words. • Introduce paragraphs with a topic sentence. • Link paragraphs—look at how other writers do this. • Tip: You can use authors’ topic sentences for speed reading.

20. 4.2 Short sentences A sentence contains a subject and a finite verb (and often an object as well). We hold the sentence in short-term memory and think about it before we move on. If it’s too long the short-term memory can’t cope. Cabinet yesterday discussed how to word changes to the laws on workers’ compensation. (13 words — comfort level is up to around 20 words.)

21. Examples: long and short sentences [The authors begin by arguing that private companies can impose negative externalities, such as pollution, on society.] “Given the free market rules of the emerging global economy and the limitations that concern for national competitiveness is placing on the power of individual governments to impose regulation on their internal, let alone international, markets, we need to understand much better the actual and potential, positive and negative influence companies have on society and what motivates them to manage these ‘externalities’ in the widest possible social interest.” (68 words) (C. Marsden and J. Andriof, ‘Towards an understanding of corporate citizenship and how to influence it’, Citizenship Studies, vol. 2, no. 2, 1998, p. 330)

22. Short-sentence version The free-market rules of the emerging global economy limit governments’ power to regulate national and international markets. Governments’ own concern to maintain national competitiveness adds to these limits. But what are the positive and negative influences private companies have on society, actual and potential? We need to know, and we also we need to understand much better what motivates them to manage these externalities in the widest possible social interest. (71 words, 4 sentences) Finite verbs are underlined — see 4.3

23. 4.3 Finite verbs • Cabinet yesterday discussed how to word changes to the laws on workers’ compensation. Cabinet[subject] yesterday [adverb of time]discussed[verb]how to… [object - noun phrase] Make sure your sentences have a finite verb. Finite verbs can stand by themselves. Cabinet yesterday discussed changes. Non-finite verbs can’t. For example: Cabinet yesterday to discuss changes. (infinitive form of verb) Cabinet yesterday discussing changes. (present participle form of verb)

24. 4.4 Confusing pronouns, clear nouns or noun phrases • The students wrote the essays. They[pronoun] were influential. • The students[noun] were influential. • This[pronoun] proved controversial. • The change to the youth allowance[noun phrase] proved controversial.

25. 4.5 Active and passive voice • The active voice shows who is doing what. • The passive voice hides who is doing what. With the active voice the subject is the doer of the action. Baathist insurgents killed 36 Iraqis. With the passive voice the subject suffers the action (and it’s not clear who’s done it) Thirty-six Iraqis were killed.

26. The active voice Passive to active • Amendments to the workers’ compensation laws were discussed. (Passive voice) • Cabinet discussed amendments to the workers’ compensation laws. (Active voice) • The law was passed. (Passive voice) • The Gillard Government passed the law. (Active voice)

27. 4.6 Give concrete examples The rules of the global market limit national governments’ power. For example, the World Trade Organisation may say that, if a government insists that imported tuna be caught in a dolphin-friendly fashion, this is just a restraint on free trade.

28. 4.7 Cut out needless words Given the free market rules of the emerging global economy and the limitations that concern for national competitiveness is placing on the power of individual governments to impose regulation on their internal, let alone international, markets, we need to understand much better the actual and potential, positive and negative influence companies have on society and what motivates them to manage these ‘externalities’ in the widest possible social interest. (One sentence, 68 words)

29. Cut out needless words cont. The free market rules of the emerging global economy limit governments’ power to regulate national and international markets. Governments’ own concern to maintain national competitiveness adds to these limits. But what are the positive and negative influences private companies have on society, actual and potential? We need to know, and we also we need to understand much better what motivates them to manage these externalities in the widest possible social interest. (71 words, 4 sentences)

30. Four short sentences under the chopper The free market rules of the emerging global economyThe global market limits governments’ power to regulate the economynational and international markets Governments’as does their own concern to maintain national competitiveness.adds to these limits. But what are the positive and negative influencesexternal effects do private companies have on society, actual and potential produce? We need to know, and we also we need to understand much better whatand what might motivates them to manage these externalitiesthesein the widest possible social interest for the common good.

31. Four short sentences reduced to two The global market limits governments’ power to regulate the economy, as does their own desire to maintain national competitiveness. But what external effects do private companies produce, and what might motivate them to manage these for the common good? (39 words, 2 sentences)

32. Short sentences conquer confusion.

33. 4 Clear expression—summary • Planned paragraphs • Short sentences • Finite verbs • Clear pronouns • Active voice • Concrete examples • No needless words

34. General advice • Practice • Read as much good writing as you can • Look for feedback

35. Universal & essential––comments about The argument Clear English Referencing – insufficient or incomplete Breadth of reading Particular & important––comments about Presentation Format of references Style 5 Using feedback —The essential and the important Less important––comments about • Spelling • Apostrophes

36. The particular and important features of essays

37. 1 Presentation—one set of rules • Cover sheet • 4cm left-hand margin • Numbered pages • A4 paper, typed, double-spaced or set in space and a half • Line between paragraphs • List of references on a separate page

38. 2 The form of documentation • Harvard system • In the text (Author, date: page/s), plus full bibliographic details in the list of references • Numbered footnotes • Footnote marker refers reader to full bibliographic details plus page number/s

39. 3 Using the first person— style • For? • Helps the student develop their own argument. • Against? • Students may not realise they need evidence as well as their own opinion. [If we say “Don’t use it”, students may slip into using the passive voice. “It is generally believed…” rather than “I think…”] Expressing your opinion without using the first person • I think Labor won the election for the following three reasons. • Labor won the election for the following three reasons.

40. Using subheadings—style • For? • Helps clarify the argument • Against? • Interrupts the flow of the argument

41. Spelling and minor aspects of grammar Proofread your final draft. Take apostrophes seriously.