The Age of Reason and the Enlightenment

1. The Age of Reason and the Enlightenment 1680-1780

2. "Dare to Know" • The Enlightenment was a movement of intellectuals who dared to know • They had been impressed by the advances of the Scientific Revolution, but for them reason meant the application of the scientific method to the understanding of all life • They believed that all institutions and all systems of thought were subject to the rational, scientific way of thinking – Natural Laws • Goal – to free mankind from the shackles of past traditions and make progress toward creating a better society than the one they inherited

3. Bernard de Fontenelle & Popular Science • Was not a scientist, but he possessed a deep knowledge of the scientific work of his own and past periods • What he did was to communicate that knowledge in a clear and even witty fashion that appealed to his upper-class audience • Plurality of Worlds • As a result, science was no longer the monopoly of experts, but part of literature

4. A New Skepticism of Religion and Tradition • The great scientists of the 17th century had practiced their work within a Christian context • However, as scientific knowledge spread, more and more people began to question religious truths and values • Increased skepticism about religion and a growing secularization of thought were becoming clearly evident throughout Europe • Pierre Bayle (1647-1706) • Attacked superstition, religious intolerance, and dogmatism • Argued that individual conscience should determine one’s actions and thus supported religious toleration

5. Impact of Travel Literature • This new skepticism was nurtured further by travel reports • Throughout the 17th century traders, missionaries, and explorers published these travel reports giving accounts the many cultures they visited • Two main effects • For intellectuals, the existence of exotic peoples gave rise to the notion of a “natural man” or “noble savage” • Also led to the realization that there were highly developed civilizations with different customs in the world - cultural relativism

6. Isaac Newton’s Laws of Physics • Intellectuals believed they could take Newton’s rules of reasoning and apply them to discover the natural laws that governed politics, economics, justice, religion and the arts

7. John Locke’s Theory of Knowledge • His theory of knowledge had a great influence upon the philosophes • Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) • Locke denied Descartes’ belief that there were innate ideas • Locke, instead argued that every person was born with a tabula rasa, a blank slate • Knowledge is derived from one’s environment, not heredity • By changing the environment and subjecting people to proper influences they could be changed and society made better - progress

8. Philosophes and Their Ideas • Who were the Philosophes? • Group of intellectuals, though many were not French and few were philosophers in the strictest sense • Came from both the nobility and lower classes • Was an international and cosmopolitan movement, though it was mainly dominated and led by the French with its capital at Paris

9. Philosophes and Their Ideas • What was a philosophe? • One who “applies himself to the study of society with the purpose of making his kind better and happier” • Rationalism – applying the scientific method, appealing to facts and experience, to all aspects of life • The philosophes constituted a “family circle,” but there could be disagreements • As the Enlightenment spread over a century, it evolved, becoming more radical, but there were three figures who more than any other dominated the period

10. Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755) • Persian Letters (1721) • Used the format of two Persians traveling in western Europe and sending their observations home • Allowed Montesquieu to criticize French institutions, especially the Catholic Church and monarchy • The Spirit of the Laws (1748) • A comparative study of governments in which he tried to apply the Scientific Method to ascertain the “natural laws” governing the social relationships of human beings • Distinguished three types of government – republics, monarchy, and despotism • Concept of checks & balances

11. Voltaire (1694-1778) • Greatest figure of the Enlightenment • Initially studied law, but he wished to be a writer and achieved his first success as a playwright and was hailed by many to be the successor of Racine • However, his writings got him into trouble and he had to flee to England in 1725 • Philosophic Letters on the English (1733) • Return to France and time in Potsdam • Candide (1759)

12. Voltaire (1694-1778) • Although he touched on nearly every subject, Voltaire was known more for his criticism of traditional religion • Believed strongly in religious toleration and was not afraid to lend his prestige and skills to the fight against religious intolerance

13. Denis Diderot (1713-1784) • Most famous contribution was the 28 volume Encyclopedia • Its purpose “was to change the general way of thinking” • Became the major weapon of the philosophes in trying to change French society • Many philosophes made contributions to the Encyclopedia attacking religious superstition, advocating toleration as well as a program for social, legal, and political improvements that would lead to a society that was more cosmopolitan, more tolerant, more human and more reasonable

14. A New "Science of Man" • David Hume and the Birth of the New Human Science • The Enlightenment belief that Newton’s laws could be used to discover the natural laws that governed human life led to the development of what was called by the philosophes as the “science of man” - the social sciences

15. Quesnay and Laws Governing the Economy • Francois Quesnay and the Physiocrats • Believed they could discover the laws that govern economics • Land constituted the only source of wealth • The natural economic forces of supply and demand made it clear that individuals should left to their own economic interests, free from state control or laissez-faire • Both beliefs countered the traditional view of mercantilism

16. Adam Smith and The Wealth of Nations • Made greatest statement supporting laissez-faire with his book The Wealth of Nations • Argued that labor was the true source of wealth and that there should be no restrictions on trade – free trade • Also major proponent of laissez-faire • Believed government should stay out of citizen’s lives except for defense, police, and public works

17. Jean-Jacques Rousseau • One of the great figures of the late Enlightenment • Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind • Began with people in their primitive state • To preserve their property, people adopted laws and government, thus creating the situation of “Man was born free, but is everywhere in chains” • Government was an evil, but a necessary one • The Social Contract (1762) • Rousseau tried to harmonize individual liberty with governmental authority • Social contract was an agreement on the part of society to be governed by its general will • Liberty to Rousseau was achieved through being forced to follow what was best for all people because what was best for all was best for each individual

18. The Rococo Style • Although Baroque and Neoclassical were still dominant, by the 1730’s a new style appeared - Rococo • Unlike the Baroque which emphasized majesty & power, Rococo rejected geometrical patterns and emphasized grace and gentle action and had a fondness for curves • Moreover, its decorative work could easily be used with Baroque architecture

19. The Rococo Style:Examples

20. Music in the Age of Reason • Baroque Music: Bach and Handel • Bach wrote toward religious music - music to him was a means to exalt God • Handel was more secular in tone, traveling throughout Europe being more cosmopolitan to Bach’s provincialism • Classical Music: Haydn and Mozart • Haydn was a prolific composer, originally serving as musical director for the Esterhazy family • Mozart was the boy genius and one of the greatest figures of the classical period • Known for his symphonies and operas, but died a debt-ridden pauper at age 35

21. Religion and the Churches • Although European intellectual society was becoming more secularized and anti-religious, religion still played an important role • The majority of Europeans were still Christians

22. Church and State:The Jesuit Example • By the 18th century, many of the Catholic states attempted to gain more control over the Church within their territories • This “nationalization” also meant controlling the papacy and its agents, the Jesuits • Expulsion and Dissolution of the Jesuits, 1773 • Additionally, the papacy lost power as it became a minor player in world affairs and lost its right to appoint high clerical positions in the Catholic states

23. Toleration and the Jews • By the 18th century, the Jews still remained the most despised of the religious minorities • However, some Enlightenment thinkers favored a new acceptance of the Jews • They argued that Jews and Muslims, as human beings, deserved the full rights of citizenship despite their religion • But they believed the Jews should be assimilated into mainstream society, something most Jews were not willing to accept