Talking the Walk : language as the missing ingredient of biodiversity conservation? An investigation of plant knowledge

1. Talking the Walk: language as the missing ingredient of biodiversity conservation? An investigation of plant knowledge in the Western Usambara Mountains, Tanzania Samantha Ross University of East Anglia

2. The affliction of linguistic diversity.......?

3. Biocultural Diversity (BCD) “BCD encompasses the total variety exhibited by the world’s natural and cultural systems and refers to the fundamental linkages and interdependence between the various manifestations of the diversity of life: biodiversity, cultural and linguistic diversity” (Terralingua, 2006) Biological Diversity Cultural Diversity Linguistic Diversity

4. Co-Evolution Linguistic Diversity MT Indigenous Knowledge Indigenous Knowledge Socially Embedded Cultural Diversity Socially Constructed Biological Diversity

5. Global linguistic diversity Ethnologue (2006) Global 25 biodiversity hotspots Myers (1998)

6. Overlap of biological and cultural diversity Green are countries in top 25 for endemic languages Yellow top 25 for endemic vertebrates Red are countries in top 25 for both Source: Harmon 1996a

7. A critique of BCD • Little empirical evidence exists for BCD claims • Theoretical gaps exist within the relativist BCD paradigm • Multilingualism or hybrid languages might be as equally able to transfer knowledge as mother tongues • Evidence of indigenous communities retaining sustainable livelihoods despite entry of foreign language • “Ecological noble savage” – the romantic versus reality • Preservationist or conservationist - Where to place dynamism and adaptability?

8. Primary research questions • How do changes in language affect people’s knowledge and practice around plants? • What are the implications for biodiversity conservation of maintaining cultural and linguistic diversity?

9. ROMANTIC UNIVERSALIST • Traditional • Relativist • Essentialist • Inductive • Embedded • Participatory • Preservationist • Modern • Universal • Reductionist • Deductive • Dis-embodied • Individual • Conservationist Cosmology Folk classification after Berlin BIOCULTURAL DIVERSITY Linguistic Relativity Folk Classification Linguistic Universals Linnaean Hierarchy Berkes Indigenous Knowledge Lévi-Strauss Cognition Boas Bloch Language Sapir, Whorf Chomsky Biodiversity Posey Terborgh A comparative framework related to language and biodiversity classification

10. Language & Cognition • Linguistic Universals Yellow Flower Innate grammar, words and knowledge Tree Language is instinct Giraffe

11. Classification & Nomenclature • Folk Classification • Unique Beginner - plant / animal • Life form – tree, vine, mammal • Generic – oak, dog • Specific– white oak • Varietal - slippery white oak • Cultural, morphological and behavioural features • Subjective based on cultural importance, essentialist, socially embedded Berlin at al (1972): Six shallow universals, iconic and arbitrary Lévi-Strauss (1962): structural universal myths Linnaean Hierarchy • Kingdom • Phylum • Class • Order • Family • Genus • Species • Western based science, morphological features • Universal / objective • Disembodied from social relations

12. Indigenous Knowledge only? • is “a cumulative body of knowledge and beliefs handed down through generations by cultural transmission about the relationship of living beings (including humans) with one another and with their environment” (Gadgil, Berkes and Folke (1999:8). • IK • Contextual – place specific • Culturally relevant • Innovative & flexible • Situated Learning and practices • SK • De-contextualised • Theory based • Global Universals • Top-down learning

13. How might language be relevant to biodiversity conservation? • A direct role as the carrier of knowledge: • Ecological • Cultural • Experience of practices An indirect role where language operates as a form of social capital within institutions Are hybrid languages and multilingual states equally able to transfer any knowledge?

14. Research Questions • What factors affect the transference of indigenous knowledge? • Are changes in mother tongue use linked to a loss in biodiversity related conservation? • How do changes in biodiversity related indigenous knowledge affect changes in biodiversity management or use?

15. Tanzania • 127 languages • Kiswahili - lingua franca • Formal education use Swahili and English • Vernaculars no official place in society • But used in rural areas, by the elderly, at home, as a unifier and identifier of tribe • Kisambaa a live language – but for how long?

16. West Usambara Mountains • High endemic species – 25% • 1 of 17 most threatened tropical forest ecosystems • High population • Land use fragmented • Poor agricultural land increases forest dependence • Forest access controlled

17. Research Approach ‘Lushoto’ Wide soc/eco base; acculturated ‘Yamba’ Rural; isolated; unacculturated • Ethnographic • 2 comparable communities: Lushoto – ethnically diverse; 2 hospitals; 2 secondary and 4 primary schools; good road access; 1 central market; multilingual Yamba – 100% Sambaa;1 health clinic; 1 primary school; no road access; no market; monolingual Similarities Same MT Same socioeconomic base Same cultural history Participants:Grandparents, Parents, Adolescents, Children Key Informants: Healers, Community Leaders, Market Traders, Teachers

18. The Research Design • Exploratory • Reflexive • An attempt to find key links • Offers opportunities to pose questions • Offers opportunities for more exploration • A comparative study will hopefully shed light on the concepts involved

19. Methodology flowchart Methods Ethnobotanical Survey Structured Interviews Semi-structured Interviews Participant Observation Focus Group Discussions PRA Statistical Analysis • Outcomes • K levels – transference techniques • Language use – ability, choice, frequency of use • Plant uses and practices • Map of plant locations – past and present • Conservation practices • Local perceptions of BD/L/C change and possible reasons • Ideas for social-cultural affects on BD K transference Participants Key Informants: Plant users; healers; teachers Cross section of communities: gender; age; occupation; education level; linguistic ability

20. Research deliverables • Add to BCD knowledge and fill some theoretical gaps – add to Terralingua’s ‘Global Source Book’ • Document ‘best practices’ for biodiversity conservation in Lushoto region and highlight future policy implications • Explore the relevance of indigenous languages for the retention and transference of ethnobotanical knowledge for biodiversity conservation • Offer locally based suggestions on how to sustain IK • Add knowledge to language of instruction in education debate • Develop plant species inventories for educational purposes in ‘all’ relevant languages

21. Research Plan

22. Ethics • Only use previously documented plant species – avoid intellectual property rights / bio-prospecting • Consent and confidentiality • Guidance from respected knowledgeable person from area – able to speak Kiswahili and Kisambaa – to guide cultural aspects

23. The affliction …… ……or the blessing of linguistic diversity?

24. How is knowledge carried & transferred? Linguistic Relativists Language and Knowledge from direct experience Local language to name, classify and practice Knowledge based in locality therefore use local language Direct use value of biodiversity – livelihoods Indirect use – ecological services Non-use value - ‘noble savage’, intruding wastrel or fallen angel? Linguistic Universals Folk Classification – universals Language – innate and instinctive Continued presence of ‘colonised’ indigenous communities using L2 Dynamism and adaptation Therefore, how central is language to biodiversity conservation?

29. Advantages of the Mother Tongue in relation to education (adapted from Moyo 2002, Cummins 2000) · Psychological – Prevents feelings of inferiority and alienation which may arise when learning in a colonial tongue so personal and conceptual foundation for learning is not undermined by an L2. · Educational - Grasps new concepts more easily and encourages freedom of expression. Deeper understanding of language and how to use it effectively. · Cultural Identity - Language is inextricably bound with cultural identity – instils respect for own culture and language. · Linguistic – easier to learn an L2 as languages are able to nurture each other. · Socio-economic – An L2 or L3 offers more promise of economic advancement and a higher status associated with knowledge of these languages. The mother tongue promotes faster learning of an L2 or 3, better adjustment and therefore less alienation from society. · Financial – A colonial language assures a country international access but investment in a mother tongue will eventually prove more productive in terms of access to information and knowledge for the general population.

31. The Functionality of the mother tongue: Its role in conserving biodiversity Co-Evolution - CULTURE - Biodiversity socially embedded socially constructed IK Cognition Ethnobotany Linguistic Diversity