Chapter 10 Interviews Fedler, Bender, Davenport and Drager

1. Chapter 10 InterviewsFedler, Bender, Davenport and Drager

2. “Censorship can never be the solution. The only thing worse than an out-of-control press acting with no regard for decency would be restricting that very same press.” • George Clooney, actor

3. Why Am I Interviewing? • Facts, details, dates, names, locations, costs • Chronology of unfolding events • Relationships among characters involved • Context and perspective • Anecdotes, drama, explanation • Description – DETAILS -- of environment, physical appearance, mannerisms, smell, sound, textures

4. The character’s version of events • Explanations of contradictions • Give the character a chance to respond to allegations or charges against him/her

5. Types of Interviewing • Information gathering: • Background only • For publication • Face-to-Face • Telephone • E-mail

6. Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication • Trust is a necessary component in good interviews. • Confrontational types of interviews are a small percentage of investigative interviews.

7. Face-to-face interview • The face-to-face interview allows for maximum opportunity to establish trust. It also permits rich nonverbal, as well as verbal, communication. The two parties observe one another and take note of the feedback that comes as the interview proceeds.

8. Eye behavior in the interview provides many cues. A fairly strong, constant gaze may be interpreted as a sign of candor or of deep engagement in the conversation, but don’t stare. This is often a sign to dominate or invade. • Facial expression and body movement, along with eye behavior, constitute kinesics, highly significant elements in interpreting meaning during interviews.

9. When nonverbal signals complement the verbal message, they may not be obvious. When nonverbal and verbal, disagree, interviewers tend to believe nonverbal signals. • The most useful nonverbal signals are those suggesting the interviewee may not be sure an answer is accurate or appropriate. • Ambivalence or puzzled gestures and evasive eye behavior, signal your interviewee may be confused.

10. The telephone interview • A telephone interview, on the other hand, lacks most of the important nonverbal elements. However, telephone interviews can provide paralinguistic cues of great value. • Behavior of the voice, such as volume, tone, pitch, intensity, and other vocal signs, like hems, haws, groans and uh-huhs.

11. In telephone interviews, both partners must emphasize paralinguistic factors, as a way to compensate for lack of other nonverbal elements. • Paralinguistics concern how words are spoken • volume, intonation, speed. • In intercultural communication, paralinguistic differences can be responsible for subconscious or stereotyped, confusion. • For example; The notion that Americans are talking "too loudly" is often interpreted in Europe as aggressive, uncultivated or tactless behaviour. • Likewise, British, speaking quietly, may be interpreted as secretive, uncultured or tactless by Americans.

12. Time use • Time use, or chronemics, is another nonverbal system that can work for understanding in both personal and telephone interviews. • Promptness for the interview -- whether in person, or arranged in advance as a telephone interview --signals interest, courtesy, and personal competence. • The person who is late begins with a disadvantage and must apologize for keeping his partner waiting.

13. Pacing the interview is another nonverbal way to communicate. It sets the mood for the interview. Pacing includes length of pauses after a question and rate of speech. • Silence -- except in broadcast interviews -- is recommended by research. • Interviewees are more relaxed and spontaneous when substantial silence is part of the partnership. • After silence, an interviewee often offers additional points or examples.

14. On the phone • Telephone interviews offer opportunity for taking notes on computers. • Also, being able to use a headset is convenient for the note taker. • In addition to note-taking, some telephones offer the interviewer a chance to tape-record the interview for additional accuracy checks. Make sure the interviewee knows it.

15. Email • In the e-mail interview, nonverbal elements are missing, of course. • A recognition of this gave birth to "emoticons," which are punctuation-mark cues to clarify how the verbal content should be "taken“ :>)

17. The e-mail interview has compensating advantages. • An interviewee receives questions in a "batch" and can ask the interviewer about any unclear questions. • From reading the questions, the interviewee gets a good idea of how knowledgeable the interviewer is and can add background, if needed. • An interviewee may also suggest background reading.

18. Support • Along with trust and sensitivity, the interview requires interviewer support. • This support does not require an interviewer to agree with a subject’s perspective, ideas, policies, or ideology. • It should reflect only personal support, a commitment by the interviewer to listen carefully, strive to understand, and represent the person's point of view accurately.

19. Rights • Indeed, studies have shown appearing to agree with an interviewee can be a dangerous practice. • The spirit of the supportive interview is embodied in an "interview bill of rights," developed with journalistic interviews in mind. • Many of the standards set forth in the document are worth considering for other forms of interviews as well.

20. Interviewee Rights • 1. The right to an objective listening to the facts presented. • 2. The right to an accurate representation of his or her position. • 3. The right to a fair and balanced context for all statements. • 4. The right to know in advance the general area of questioning and to have reasonable time for preparation.

21. 5. The right to reasonable flexibility as to when to have the interview. (Just as there are times when a reporter cannot be interrupted near a deadline, there are times when others cannot be interrupted.) • 6. The right to expect an interviewer to do some homework.

22. 7. The right to withhold comment when there is good reason without having this translated as evading or "stonewalling," for example, information governed by Securities and Exchange Commission regulations, competitive secrets, matters in litigation or negotiation, information that could damage innocent persons. • 8. The right to an assumption of innocence until guilt is proven.

23. 9. The right to offer feedback to the reporter, especially to call attention to instances in which the story, in the honest opinion of the interviewee, missed the point or was in error--and to have this feedback received in good faith. • 10. The right to appropriate correction of substantial errors without further damage to the credibility or reputation of the interviewee's organization.

24. Interviewer Rights • 1. The right to access authoritative information on a timely basis. • 2. The right to appropriate candor. • 3. The right to access to information and assistance on favorable and adverse stories. • 4. The right to protection on an exclusive story until it has been published or another reporter inquires independently for on the same topic.

25. 5. The right not to be used by business for "free advertising" on a purely commercial story. • 6. The right not to be reminded that advertising pays the reporter's salary. • 7. The right not to be held accountable for ill treatment by another reporter or another medium at another time. • 8. The right to publish a story without showing it to the interviewee in advance.

26. 9. The right not to be asked to suppress legitimate news purely on the grounds that it would be embarrassing or damaging. • 10. The right not to be summoned to a news conference when a simple phone call written statement, news release or interview would do just as well.

27. Mutual Trust • Ground rules are how a partnership establishes mutual trust, respect, and consideration. • Although concerns of this chapter extend beyond journalistic interviews, Jamison's list illuminates how professional relationships should work. • The interview, as interpersonal communication, is more formal, more strategic, and more specific than conversations between two people.

28. A Stimulating Interview • Qualities that contribute to good conversation abound in a stimulating interview. • They explain, in part, the willingness of sources to give time for interviews and the contribution that interview information makes to production of interesting messages.

29. Communicators share interview goals, whether they work in news, advertising, or public-relations. • Questions they ask will be similar, but will reflect differences according to ultimate use of information. • Their common goal is gathering accurate, factual, and comprehensive material to produce an interesting message.

30. Insight, Ideas • The sense of dialog about the topic can be established through interviews. • Interviews provide insight and details about people. • Authority is established. • Interviewees provide facts, ideas, statistics, interpretations – DETAILS – from a position of authority.

31. Perspective • Interviews provide variety in perspectives. Getting more than one side to the story is no small task. • Your interview will provide you with some of the most recent information. The authority you select deals with your topic every day. Her job depends on it. Her information will be current. • Interpretations can lead to predictions, or opinions about a situation’s outcome.

32. Context • Interviews provide continual negotiation between what has been learned and what has been missed. They provide context, perspective, accuracy, completeness, currency and authority.

33. Be Prepared • The interview should never take place before the interviewer is well versed on the subject.

34. Whom Should I Interview? • John Madge classified interviewees as: • The Potentate • The Expert • The People

35. Selecting Interviewees • Potentates have authority and/or power. • Experts have special knowledge of the subject. • People have experiences - testimony.

36. Choose those people with the appropriate facts and experiences. Choose facts over phrases. • Media selection of "the same experts" has come under criticism. • Many times biases are at play in the selection of an expert. The white male establishment • Think about "the people" when you are looking for expert comment.

37. If you are evaluating literacy programs, interview someone who has learned to read, as well as the one who taught this person to read. • List potential interviewees, check their reputations. Check the “Who's Who,” or check recent local articles and professional journals for their works and comments.

38. How Many Sources are Enough? • Your list of potential interviewees will start to dwindle as you have to deal with willingness and availability. • In some cases they will just want to give you their research results. • Sometimes they will refer you to someone else familiar with their work. • Don't be discouraged. Most will agree to be interviewed.

39. Planning Interviews • Lay a good foundation before you go. Let the interviewee set the time, place, conditions. • If there are conflicts, say so. Your honesty will be appreciated up front. • Remember you are establishing trust and relationship at this point. Remember to ask about a tape recorder or camera. Will photos be allowed?

40. Even if you are using e-mail, get permission to use it. Many times e-mail is ignored if it is unexpected. CONSIDER • 1. What material is agreed on? • 2. What is disputed? • 3. What unexplored aspects of the subject should be reflected in my questions? • 4. What questions are appropriate to each interviewee?

41. What about . . .? • 5. What sensitivities and special perspectives should I be aware of in questioning each interviewee? • 6. What information in my files may need updating or confirming? • 7. What human-interest information can be elicited from this interviewee? • Interview preparation also involves preparing for social and psychological aspects of the interview – Their shoes!

42. Raymond Gorden cites eight inhibitors that interviewers should be aware of in their interview strategies. Four of these inhibitors may make sources unwilling to give information: • 1 competing demands for time • 2 ego threats that make the respondent fear loss of esteem or status • 3 standards of etiquette that put some topics off limits in certain circumstances • 4 trauma, the reluctance to return to a painful situation.

43. The other four inhibitors affect the speaker's or interviewee’s ability to respond adequately: • 1 forgetfulness • 2 chronological confusion • 3 inferential confusion • 4 unconscious behavior

44. When Should I Conduct My Interviews? • Conduct interviews when you want to know more about the interviewee’s interests and perceptions. • Always arrive early. • Thorough research is key to good interviews and gives the reporter at least seven advantages.

45. 1. They will ask about issues already publicized. • 2. They will have leads for interesting questions. • 3. They will not appear ignorant. • 4. They will recognize newsworthy statements. • 5. They will readily spot inconsistencies. • 6. They are less likely to re-interview the main subject. • 7. They encourage their sources to speak more freely.

46. Where Should I Interview? • Conduct your interview in a place where your source feels comfortable. • Newsrooms are poor places for interviews. • Luncheon appointments because there are many distractions in cafes and restaurants. • When a place cannot be arranged, consider options – telephone or e-mail.

47. What Questions Should I Ask? • Ask questions that elicit anecdotes. • Questions should be in a logical order. • Move from general to more specific questions. Remember there is a time when a question may be more appropriate. • Save the most sensitive or embarrassing questions for the end of the interview. • There will be more trust, and if the interview ends, you have most of what you wanted anyway.

48. Social psychologists Eleanor and Nathan Maccoby developed six points to assist question writers: • Avoid words with double meaning: Even such simple terms as dinner can result in error. Residents of a nursing home, for example, may refer to dinner as either the noon meal or the evening meal, depending on custom and social class. The interviewer in such a situation might conclude that people did not know what they were eating, since they gave different answers to the question "What was served for dinner?"

49. Avoid long questions: • Use a carefully crafted question to open the subject and a series of separate follow-ups that will cover the material. • When an interview concerns a subject unfamiliar to an interviewee, offer explanation before the question: "While you were held captive, some new legislation was introduced in Congress. The provisions include ... Do you think that would have helped in your situation?”

50. It is helpful to ask questions in terms of immediate experience: The respondent may resist such a general question as "Is the State Department doing a good job in these kidnapping cases?" A specific question -- "In your case, did the State Department work effectively toward your release?" -- is more to the point.