The Scientific Method: A means of coming to understand the natural world that involves the testing of hypotheses thr

1. The Scientific Method: A means of coming to understand the natural world that involves the testing of hypotheses through observation and experiment.

2. Scientific theory -A synthesis of numerous observations (and of related hypotheses) that have stood up to repeated testing and which explains a broad range of natural phenomena. HAS EXPLANATORY POWER!!

3. Three types of chemical bonds: - Covalent: shared electrons; a fixed number of atoms make up the molecule - Ionic: involves the gaining or losing of electrons; no fixed number of atoms participating in the link-up. - Hydrogen bonds

5. Complex biomolecules are made from simpler “building blocks” MonomerPolymer Monosaccharide Polysaccharide (glucose, fructose) (starch, glycogen) Amino Acid Protein (arginine, glycine) (enzymes, insulin) Nucleotide Nucleic Acid (sugar + phosphate + base) (DNA)

6. Complex biomolecules are made from simpler “building blocks” MonomerPolymer Monosaccharide Polysaccharide (glucose, fructose) (starch, glycogen) Amino Acids Protein (enzymes, insulin) Nucleotide Nucleic Acid (sugar + phosphate + base) (DNA)

7. Complex biomolecules are made from simpler “building blocks” MonomerPolymer Monosaccharide Polysaccharide (glucose, fructose) (starch, glycogen) Amino Acids Protein (enzymes, insulin) Nucleotide Nucleic Acid (sugar + phosphate + base) (DNA)

8. C6H12O6

12. fatty acids glycerides phospholipids

13. FATTY ACID

14. GLYCEROL BACKBONE +

15. Glycerol Backbone + Fatty Acid = ______glyceride

21. Important differences between the two: Prokaryotes Eukaryotes Nucleus is not Membrane- membrane bound bound nucleus Always single celled Can be multi- cellular Smaller Bigger Many are anaerobic Mostly aerobic

22. The ribosome is the destination for the mRNA... …is where the mRNA (carrying info from DNA) will be translated… …translated into a protein.

23. Endosymbiotic Theory 1) mitochondria (and plastids) have their own unique DNA and unique ribosomes (similar to that of bacteria) 2) mitochondria (and plastids) reproduce like bacteria, and under their own genetic control

24. Chapter 5 summary statement # 1 The plasma membrane is the cell boundary; it regulates the passage of materials (i.e. nutrients; toxins) into and out of the cell.

25. Four main components: *1) phospholipid bilayer 2) cholesterol; other sterols *3) protein 4) glycocalyx

27. Membrane proteins have four main functions: 1) Structural support 2) Cell recognition 3) Communication *4) Transport

29. Chapter 5 summary statement # 2 Diffusion occurs because of a concentration gradient and does not require energy whereas movement against a concentration gradient does require energy (and is called Active Transport).

30. THE SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP

31. Chapter 6 summary statement: “We’re all screwed.”

32. The Second Law (of Thermodynamics) In energy transformations, matter goes from a more-ordered state to a less-ordered state… This always amounts to a greater amount of disorder in the universe! Entropy is a measure of the amount of disorder in a system...Entropy increases; disorder increases!

33. Chapter 6 summary statement: While the 2nd law of thermodynamics does indeed rule the universe, the constant input of energy from the sun allows biological activity to bring about local increases in order.

34. Endergonic reactions: - “energy in” - an “uphill” reaction (energy is stored) Exergonic reactions: - “energy out” - a “downhill” reaction (energy is released)

36. ATP - The energy molecule (adenosine triphosphate)

38. “allosteric” regulation

39. Summary statement for chapters 7 (Deriving Energy From Food) and 8 (Photosynthesis): The sun provides the energy for photosynthesis, enabling plants to take CO2 gas and make sugar from it (uphill; won’t happen by itself!) while we animals break down sugar and extract energy from it (downhill, with help from enzymes).

40. Photosynthesis - Endergonic Glucose Breakdown - Exergonic

41. The light-dependent reaction - the light-dependent reaction is an energy- storing step, storing the energy from the sun that will drive the synthesis of carbohydrate The light-independent reaction - the incorporation of CO2 gas into an organic molecule is known as “carbon fixation” (Occurs in the Calvin Cycle.)

42. Easy Summary: - Glucose stores energy in chemical bonds - We want to harvest that energy… wring every last bit out - To do that, we break down the molecule and harvest electrons from it - Electrons are at a high energy level, waiting to travel downhill, where they will drive the uphill reaction : ADP + P = ATP

43. C6H12O6 + 6O2 + ADP = 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36 ATP

44. Mitosis summary statement: The phases of mitosis (PMAT +C) occur as part of a larger cell cycle. Actual DNA replication occurs during the “S” phase of interphase of the cell cycle while separation of sister chromatids occurs during mitosis.

45. Prior to “S” phase, chromosomes are in an un-duplicated state - are single chromatids. But there are still 46 chromosomes (23 “matched pairs” of single chromatids, i.e. 23 chromatids each from mother and father). ><^ < < ^ ^ > << ^> Division of cell and DNA 23 matched pairs of “sister chromatids” (i.e. 46 chromosomes, 92 chromatids in total) X X xxXx XXx Xx x S phase - DNA replication

46. Meiosis summary statement: A diploid cell (those with the full compliment of paired chromosomes) divides to produce haploid cells (the reduced chromosome state) - a process that is necessary so that when two gametes (haploid reproductive cells) come together, the resulting cell has no more than 46 chromosomes (that is, in humans...)

47. Genetic Diversity - “Crossing over” - “Independent assortment”

48. Mendel summarized: - Traits are maintained over generations, not blended - Phenotype (physical appearance) - Genotype (genetic make-up) - Homozygous dominant or recessive - Heterozygous - Punnett Squares

49. Genotype = yellow Phenotype = heterozygous Homozygous dominant Homozygous recessive Heterozygous

50. Polyploid remember: “diploid” (2n) - full set of chromosomes “haploid” (1n) - reduced chromosome state Polyploidy - the condition of having more than 2 sets of chromosomes