Scurta istorie a stiintei cognitie Notiuni generale

1. Scurta istorie a stiintei cognitieNotiuni generale

2. Stiinta cognitiei (SC) = Explicarea cognitiei; “Mintea proceseaza informatia” Interdisciplinar • Neurostiinta: structura si functiile creierului • Psihologia: psihologia cognitiva, dezvol. • Inteligenta artificiala + Robotica (Computer science, Neural nets): modele artificiale • Lingvistica: sintaxa, semantica, fonologia • Filosofia: fundamentele teoretice • Antropologia

3. Nasterea SC: etape, directii... • 11 Septembrie, 1956 (Symposium on Information Theory, MIT): Newell + Simon (computer science), Chomsky (lingvist), Miller (psiholog) • Neurostiinta – initial puternica, apoi declin; lingvistica crestere puternica • Anii 1970: Filosofia, sociologia, antropologia - contributii distinctive

4. Discipline ale SC din prima perioada Logica • 1854, The Laws of Thought, Boole: operatiile formale performate asupra unor multimi corespund unor operatori logici (si, sau, nu) aplicati la propozitii = legile gandirii

5. Lingvistica Chomsky (1956), (1959) – vs. Skinner, theoria behaviorista a limbajului • “No purely stimulus-driven mechanisms could possibly learn the structure of natural language → Language learning - innate cognitive representational structures = UG.” (Chomsky 1957, 1959)

6. Computer Science • Mintea = procesor de informatie (analogia cu un computer) • Anii 1930-40: Automata theory (Turing machine), cybernetics (Weiner’s feedback loops), designs for implementing Boolean operations via electric onoff switches, and information theory (Shannon)

7. Implementare – inventia circuite electrice, vacuum tubes, tranzistori (1944-6) • Anii 1950, Newell and Simon – primul program de functionarea pt rationamente, (Logic Theorist) + primul list-processing language • McCarthy + Minsky (MIT) - artificial intelligence (AI)

8. Psychology: • Behaviorism in US • (‘50s) Tolman (behaviorist) – harta soarecelui • Majoritatea psihologilor: Invatarea (nu congnitia) e domeniul de cercetare

9. George Mandler (looking back on his graduate student days at Yale): “… cognition was a dirty word for us … because cognitive psychologists were seen as fuzzy, hand-waving, imprecise people who never really did anything that was testable.” (Baars 1986)

10. Continental Europe (Piaget’s GE) • UK (Bartlett’s schemas for memory distortions, Broadbent’s analyses of memory and attention) • Germany + Austria (Gestalt psychology) • Soviet Union (Vygotsky and Luria) • The US, psychophysics: Miller, Donald Norman - nu behavioristi!

11. 1956, Bruner, Goodnow, Austin - A Study of Thinking • 1960, Miller, Galanter, Karl Pribram - Plans and the Structure of Behavior. • 1967, Neisser - Cognitive Psychology

12. Neuroscience • 1950s, Geschwind + others – tehnici eletrofiziologici (brain stimulation, single cell recording, EEG) • 1940-60, Neural networks, McCulloch + Pitts • Donald Hebb: Cell-assemblies by strengthening connections between neurons that fired simultaneously

13. Selfridge - Layers of units competing in parallel to recognize patterns • Rosenblatt - Layered networks - learned through error correction (Perceptron) • Neural networks pierde influenta prin critica devastatoare a lui Minsky si Papert in 1969!

14. Dupa 1970 – Perioada de maturare a CS • O'Keefe si Dostrovsky (1971): “Place cells“ in hipocampusul soarecelui – cellule ce se activeaza doar cand soarecele percepe o locatie • Newell si Simon (1972, Human Problem Solving): Sistem de productie = Memoria de lucru + operatii (productii) raspund si altereaza continutul memoriei → Modelarea strategiei umane in rezolvarea problemelor

15. McCarthy - list processing language (LISP), standard tool of AI • Early ’70, Winograd’s SHRDLU at MIT • IA – Limitari a rationamentului doar la informatie atomizata • Structuri de cunoastere la scara larga (Schank’s scripts + Minsky’s frames) • Progres in arii specializate: sisteme experte, intelegerea vorbirii, lingvistica computationala

16. Psihologia • 1968, Atkinson + Shiffrin (model - integrated control processes), sensory memory (Sperling), short-term memory (Peterson & Peterson), distinction between short-term + long-term memory (William James; Waugh & Norman) • Roger Shepard - Mathematical psychology

17. Notiunea “cognitive science” in 2 carti: - “Explorations in Cognition” (UCSD) “concerted efforts of a number of people from . . . linguistics, artificial intelligence, and psychology may be creating a new field: cognitive science” (Norman & Rumelhart, p. 409) (1975) - “Representation and Understanding: Studies in Cognitive Science” (Bobrow, Collins) (1975)

18. 1977 - Alfred P. Sloan Foundation - Particular Program in Cognitive Science, peste 10 ani - $17.4 million • UCSD – prin Sloan grants – 1979, La Jolla Conference on Cognition • Journal Cognitive Science in 1977

19. Anii ’80 • Modulari computationale a cognitiei, limbajului, si psiholimbajului • Filosofia: Fodor + Churchlands • Dreyfus: Cognitia nu e doar compuatrea formala • Neisser: Integreaza procesarea informatiei cu psihologia ecologica (J+E Gibson) • Hutchens + altii: “Embodiment” + “situatated” cognition

20. Revenirea neurostiintei • 1980+’90 - Cognitive Neuroscience: Posner, Raichle, Petersen – imagini cu PET --- legatura intre creier si procese si stari cognitive • fMRI – Rezolutie spatiala mai mare • Alte metode prin EEG - Rezolutie temporala mai mare -----------------------------------------------------------

21. Explicatia in CS • Multidisciplinaritate localista: Un domeniu = multidisciplinar daca cercetarile individuale sunt multidisciplinare (CS) vs. Multidisciplinaritate holista: Un domeniu = multidisciplinar daca disciplinele multiple contribuie la executarea programului de cercetare (von Eckhardt 2001) (vezi CNS)

22. Sistemul cognitiv = Mecanism de procesare a informatiei • Perceptia – Informatie despre spatiu exterior • Folosirea limbajului – Sintaxa, semantica, fonologia • Rationamentele + gandire (on si off) • Actiunea – Folosirea informatiei pt. actiune, planificare, ghidare • Memoria – Pastrarea, amintirea

23. Notiuni • Reprezentari/patternuri neuronale • Computari/procesari neuronale • Niveluri de analiza/explicatie • Modularitate • Autoorganizare • Emergenta si reductionism • Functii minte/creier • Interactiuni intre niveluri si mediu exterior (cauzalitate) • Localizare

24. Teorii principale • Computationalism (logica, Chomsky, computerul) – R si computari, software nu hardware • Conexionismul (PDP, McClelland and Rumelhart 1986) – R distribuita (ca neuronii) • Teoria sistemelor dinamice (’90) + Embodied cognition (Brooks) + Situated cognition– Nu R/computari

25. Relatia psihologie-neurostiinta • 1974, Fodor - “Special sciences” • ’90, Cognitive Neuroscience (Johnson, Gazzaniga, Kosslyn) • Neuroimaging: “localizarea” • Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) • Positron emission tomography (PET) • Electrophysiological recordings (EEG) • Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

26. Dihotomii psihologice ale R/procese/ mem./k: • declarativ-procedural (Anderson ’83) • accesibil-inaccesibil • constient-inconstient • conceptual-sensoriomotor • simbolic-subsimbolic (conceptual-subconcep. procesessing, Smolensky ’88) • explicit-implicit • serial-paralel (minte-creier) • semantic (free context) – episodic memory (self and time) (Tulving)

27. Interconectate, se suprapundar nu identice • C. declarativ-proceduralase refera la tipuridiferite de Rs/procesari • Bazatape c. accesibila or inaccesibilaconstiintei • C. procedural = inaccesibilaconstiintei; avemacces la efecteleei nu la procedura

28. (Cunoasterea Ryle: “knowing that” vs. “knowing how” – pt. recunoasterea perceptuala si abilitati motorii) • Nu suntem “aware” de detaliile c. procedurale → Prin obisnuita,creste performanta corpului pt. realizarea anumitor actiuni • Nefiind conceptualizata, informatia senzoriomotorie = procedurala • Suntem “aware” de sensatii perceptuale si invatare motorie

29. “You see that a tree is green, you experience greenness, but this is not the same as thinking”. → Diferenta dintre conceptual-sensoriomotor • Declarative-procedural - “Distinctie in formatul representational” (Implicit-explicit - “distinctie in procesare”)

30. C. declarativ – Rs statice, discrete • C. procedurala – procese continue • Ex. declarativa – Limba straina sau logica Novicele – reguli si simboluri, invatare → parte din c. explicita in c. implicita • C. logicii - declarativa (implicit ori/sau explicita), c. procedurala - doar implicita

31. C. procedurala (perceptuala+sensomotorie): • Inaccessibila constiintei • Dificil de descris in limbaj • Invatare lenta • Dependenta de context • Senzitiva la frecventa • Nu e reprezentata sub forma de reguli → Nu are forme simbolice a representarilor (poate sunt subsimbolice)

32. C. declarative (conceptuala): • Accesibila constiintei • Se poate descrie in limbaj • Necesita atentia sa fie incodata in format • Posibila sa fie invatata dintr-o singura incercare • Caracter static • Reprezentare simbolica

33. Suntem constienti de c. perceptuala si sensoromotorie dar nu e accesibla datorita formatului procedural din memorie (recunoasterea fetei) vs. Informatie verbala = declarativa (amintirea, planificarea) • C. conceptuala este simbolica

34. Relatia intre perceptie si cognitie Pylyshyn (impenetrabilitatea perceptiei de catre cognitie) vs. Kosslyn (penetrabilitate, pe linie kantiana) • Top-down = Conceptual influences perceptual • Bottom-up = Conceptual - constructed on perceptual • Gandire online vs. offline