Culture and Language Teaching

1. Culture and Language Teaching Nicholas Bradley nbradley@vega.aichi-u.ac.jp 1. What is culture? 2. The ambiguity of language. 3. Cultural nationalism 4. A couple of approaches.

2. Why is it worth considering? • Most academics agree that language and culture are inextricably connected. • Cultural content in class is interesting and motivating. • The dual responsibilities of an ALT to teach English, to foster internationalization.

3. What is Culture?

4. People in the know. • “membership in a social group that defines itself by its national, ethnic, professional, gender or other characteristics. The term encompasses both the ‘high’ culture of literature and the arts, and the small ‘c’ culture of attitudes values, beliefs and everyday lifestyles.” Carter & Nunan • “the learned and shared pattern of beliefs, behaviours and values of groups of interacting people” – Milton Bennett. • “culture is communication” Edward T Hall • “Membership in a common system of standards for perceiving, believing, evaluating, and acting” - Kramsch

5. Culture and Language. • Culture is the 5th skill • Surface differences in language point to the environments in which culture develops. (E.G - Eskimo and snow. Japanese and hierarchy) • BUT the culture connection to communication is much more than this: it is central to the successful negotiation of meaning.

6. The Limits of Language Four general conclusions about language. • Language is ambiguous. • We must draw inferences about meaning. • Our inferences tend to be fixed, not tentative. • Our inferences are drawn very quickly. Levinson (1990) in Scollon & Scollon (1995) Intercultural Communication

7. 1. Language is Ambiguous • We don’t fully control the meaning of what we say and write. • Communication is the exchange of meaning, but meaning is constructed by our words and the listeners interpretation of them. • Culture is a variable in interpretation.

8. Word / sentence level ambiguity. “There’s a man at the door.” “There’s a taxi at the door.” To a stranger on the street. “What time is it?” “2 o’clock” “Thanks” To a kid in your class. “What time is it?” “2 o’clock” “Very gooooood!!” Couple are getting ready for a dinner party. “What time is it?” “It’s not time to go yet.” In order to understand these sentences, we call upon our experiences and knowledge of the world. We are familiar with these situations and responses due to our culture – our learned behaviour.

9. Discourse level ambiguity. We might understand the meaning of the individual sentences, but how should we evaluate / what weight should we give them from their relation with other sentences? Mr Wong and Mr Richardson have a conversation. Mr Richardson has enjoyed this conversation and when they are ready to part he says to Mr Wong “We should have lunch sometime”. Mr Wong says that he would enjoy that.After a few weeks Mr Wong begins to feel that Mr Richardson’s offer was insincere because he has not invited him to lunch with a time and a place.

10. We must draw inferences about meaning. • 2. We must draw inferences about meaning. No way to avoid it. Inferences come from - the language used & our knowledge of the world- this knowledge includes what people usually say in such situations. • 3. Inferences tend to be fixed, not tentative. Necessary to aid communication. The fixed inferences are a result of our concept of normal, the day-to-day world we take for granted (culture- our shared/learned behaviour). Language is usually associated with a particular meaning. If it is not this widely understood meaning, we may use different / additional language. If A man was lying dead or wounded at the door, people usually wouldn’t say “there’s a man at the door”.

11. 4. Inferences are drawn quickly. • Inferences are made quickly and without any conscious process of self-reflection or analysis. • Result of social experience and interactions. • This tells us that communication works better the more people share assumptions and knowledge of the world. – common experience and knowledge • Inferences become more difficult to draw about meaning the more shared experiences diverge.

12. How can we teach culture? • Hands up, who teaches culture? • You all are teaching culture!! “From the first day of the beginning class, culture is at the forefront. Whatever approach, method or technique is used, greetings are usually first on the agenda….. The differences made in formal greetings, casual greetings, in greetings of young to old and vice versa, of employee to employer, in who shakes hands, bows, or touches the forehead, who may be called by first names, etc. are certainly not universal and serve as an excellent introduction to the culture of the people who speak the language, as well as to the language itself.” Valdes (1990) • Culture is inescapable in language teaching • The culture that is often used in class is often limited and based on cultural stereotypes.

13. Nihonjinron • “A set of propositions about uniqueness of Japanese derived from traditional culture. It is presented [by proponents] as if a world characterized by this set of propositions, having to do with the Japanese national character, social structures, etc., is literally alive today.” Befu and Manabe (1991) • Inescapable. Japanese = race, nationality, language. • Japanese the culture is the most unique!! • America / the West is usually used as the cultural mirror for self-definition. • ‘Self-orientalising’ discourse. “We Japanese….” • Key beliefs- uniqueness of Japanese culture and society, and the homogeneity of its people. • Nihonjinron exists. (Bradley, 2014) • Teachers as creators / perpetuators? (Rivers 2010)

14. What is your definition of culture? • “Culture is the way of thinking for a thing or matter that varies according to the countries” • “The thing that originates in each country. When people go abroad and feel something different, that is culture” • “I think culture is the form of people’s life. It includes eating habits, clothing habits, the manners of society and so on. Every nation must have its own culture. The form of culture takes a long time. It may be formed by the geographical environment. People may choose the most suitable way to live and after weeks and weeks, it comes to be the culture” • “Culture is a norm in a place. Different places have different cultures. It is a way to say, a way to do things and to live” • “Culture shows the personality of people in each country. The Japanese like making a small group or being friends with particular people. They are shy and wait to be spoken to by others. They are hard working and sometimes too earnest. They are strict with time so they have things like good transport systems”

15. Cross-Cultural Approach • Cross-cultural approach is the most common. • Using English to examine different cultures (usually national cultures). E.G – Education in Egypt. Gift giving in Canada. Usually done comparatively. • Often implicitly based on certain cultural dichotomies which are applied to culture at a national level. (Edward Hall – Monochronic- Polychronic / High context – Low context.) (Gert Hofstede – Collectivistic – Individualistic / High - Low Power Distance / Masculine – Feminine / Long term – Short term orientation) • Cross-cultural approach is usually easy for the teacher and students. • Problem – Us - Them • Problem – English as a Lingua Franca?

16. Intercultural Teaching • Widely agreed goals - raising students cultural awareness - challenging stereotypes - prepare students for communicating with people of other cultures. - helping students appreciate the diversity in their own and other cultures. - helping students predict potential miscommunication • (English) communication is intercultural and successful intercultural communication needs to go beyond vocabulary, grammar and phonology.

17. Baker’s Intercultural Awareness • Students likely to use their English with non-native English speakers. Non-native culture. • Awareness of others comes from awareness of ones own communication style / language preferences etc. • (Hopefully) develop student identity as intercultural communicators who can mediate and negotiate between different languages. • “Years of study have convinced me that the real job is not to understand foreign culture but to understand our own” – Hall (1959)

18. A Thai Example • Students start by researching their own culture (attitudes to learning, classrooms, learners views on their own language and other languages, different cultural groupings in their culture and their relationship to language, outsider views of Thai language and culture etc) • Look at how their own cultural context influences their own behaviour and communication practices. • Possibility of engaging in small scale ethnographic projects. • Encourage learners to adopt a critical approach with information. They, the teacher and all other cultural sources should be treated as subjective. • Accept your own diversity and identity and then you can accept that of others.

19. Food for thought • Traditional essentialist views of culture are easy to use in class but are we doing students a disservice in the long run?

20. References • Kramsch, C (1993) Language and Culture • Corbett, J (2003) An Intercultural Approach to English Language Teaching. • Scollon & Scollon (1995) Intercultural Communication • Valdes, J.M (1990) The inevitability of teaching and learning culture in a foreign language course. In B. Harrison (ed.) Culture and the Language Classroom (pp. 20-30) • Befu, H (1992) Hegemony of Homogeneity • Baker, M (2010) Intercultural Awareness • Hall, E (1959) The Silent Language • Bradley, N (2014) Cultural Nationalism and International Posture of Japanese University Students, TESOL Journal