1 / 81

Inorganic Chemistry

Inorganic Chemistry. Bonding and Coordination Chemistry. Books to follow Inorganic Chemistry by Shriver & Atkins Physical Chemistry: Atkins. C. R. Raj C-110, Department of Chemistry. Bonding in s,p,d systems: Molecular orbitals of diatomics,

alessandra-tandy
Download Presentation

Inorganic Chemistry

An Image/Link below is provided (as is) to download presentation Download Policy: Content on the Website is provided to you AS IS for your information and personal use and may not be sold / licensed / shared on other websites without getting consent from its author. Content is provided to you AS IS for your information and personal use only. Download presentation by click this link. While downloading, if for some reason you are not able to download a presentation, the publisher may have deleted the file from their server. During download, if you can't get a presentation, the file might be deleted by the publisher.

E N D

Presentation Transcript

  1. Inorganic Chemistry Bonding and Coordination Chemistry Books to follow Inorganic Chemistry by Shriver & Atkins Physical Chemistry: Atkins C. R. Raj C-110, Department of Chemistry

  2. Bonding in s,p,d systems: Molecular orbitals of diatomics, d-orbital splitting in crystal field (Oh, Td). Oxidation reduction: Metal Oxidation states, redox potential, diagrammatic presentation of potential data. Chemistry of Metals: Coordination compounds (Ligands & Chelate effect), Metal carbonyls – preparation stability and application. Wilkinson’s catalyst – alkene hydrogenation Hemoglobin, myoglobin & oxygen transport

  3. H2 // Na+Cl- // C60 CHEMICAL BONDING:A QUANTUM LOOK

  4. Classical expectations As intensity of light increases, force increases, so KE of ejected electrons should increase. Maximum KE of ejected electrons is independent of intensity, but dependent on ν Electrons should be emitted whatever the frequency ν of the light. Actual results: For ν<ν0 (i.e. for frequencies below a cut-off frequency) no electrons are emitted J.J. Thomson Hertz PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT When UV light is shone on a metal plate in a vacuum, it emits charged particles (Hertz 1887), which were later shown to be electrons by J.J. Thomson (1899). Light, frequency ν Vacuum chamber Collecting plate Metal plate I Ammeter Potentiostat

  5. Photoelectric Effect.

  6. No electrons are ejected, regardless of the intensity of the radiation, unless its frequency exceeds a threshold value characteristic of the metal. • The kinetic energy of the electron increases linearly with the frequency of the incident radiation but is independent of the intensity of the radiation. • Even at low intensities, electrons are ejected immediately if the frequency is above the threshold.

  7. Major objections to the Rutherford-Bohr model • We are able to define theposition and velocity of each electron precisely. • In principle we can follow the motion of each individual electron precisely like planet. • Neither is valid.

  8. Werner HeisenbergHeisenberg's name will always be associated with his theory of quantum mechanics, published in 1925, when he was only 23 years. • It is impossible to specify the exact position and momentum of a particle simultaneously. • Uncertainty Principle. • x p h/4 where h isPlank’s Constant,a fundamental constant with the value 6.62610-34 J s.

  9. Einstein h  = ½ mv2 +  • KE1/2mv2 = h-  •  is the work function • h is the energy of the incident light. • Light can be thought of as a bunch of particles which have energy E = h. The light particles are called photons.

  10. If light can behave as particles,why not particles behave as wave? Louis de Broglie The Nobel Prize in Physics 1929 French physicist (1892-1987)

  11. Louis de Broglie • Particles can behave as wave. • Relation between wavelength  and the mass and velocity of the particles. • E = h and also E = mc2, • E is the energy • m is the mass of the particle • c is the velocity.

  12. Wave Particle Duality • E = mc2 = h • mc2 = h • p = h /{ since  = c/} •  = h/p = h/mv • This is known aswave particle duality

  13. Flaws of classical mechanics Photoelectric effect Heisenberg uncertainty principle limits simultaneous knowledge of conjugate variables Light and matter exhibit wave-particle duality Relation between wave and particle properties given by the de Broglie relations The state of a system in classical mechanics is defined by specifying all the forces acting and all the position and velocity of the particles.

  14. Wave equation?Schrödinger Equation. • Energy Levels • Most significant feature of the Quantum Mechanics: Limits the energies to discrete values. • Quantization. 1887-1961

  15. The wave function For every dynamical system, there exists a wave function Ψ that is a continuous, square-integrable, single-valued function of the coordinates of all the particles and of time, and from which all possible predictions about the physical properties of the system can be obtained. Square-integrable means that the normalization integral is finite If we know the wavefunction we know everything it is possible to know.

  16. a V=0 x =0 x =a d2 /dx2 + 82 m/h2 (E-V)  = 0 Assume V=0 between x=0 & x=a Also  = 0 at x = 0 & a d2/dx2 + [82mE/h2]  = 0 d2/dx2 + k2 = 0 where k2 = 82mE/h2 Solution is:  = C cos kx + D sin kx • Applying Boundary conditions: •  = 0 at x = 0  C = 0 •   = D sin kx

  17. a V =  V =  x = 0 x = a Energy is quantized An Electron in One Dimensional Box • n = D sin (n/a)x • En = n2 h2/ 8ma2 • n = 1, 2, 3, . . . • E = h2/8ma2 , n=1 • E = 4h2/8ma2 , n=2 • E = 9h2/8ma2 , n=3

  18. MAX BORN Characteristics of Wave Function He has been described as a moody and impulsive person. He would tell his student, "You must not mind my being rude. I have a resistance against accepting something new. I get angry and swear but always accept after a time if it is right."

  19. Characteristics of Wave Function: What Prof. Born Said • Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle: We can never know exactly where the particle is. • Our knowledge of the position of a particle can never be absolute. • In Classical mechanics, square of wave amplitude is a measure of radiation intensity • In a similar way, 2 or  * may be related to density or appropriately the probability of finding the electron in the space.

  20. The wave function  is the probability amplitude Probability density

  21. The sign of the wave function has not direct physical significance: the positive and negative regions of this wave function both corresponds to the same probability distribution. Positive and negative regions of the wave function may corresponds to a high probability of finding a particle in a region.

  22. Characteristics of Wave Function: What Prof. Born Said • Let  (x, y, z) be the probability function, •  d = 1 Let  (x, y, z) be the solution of the wave equation for the wave function of an electron. Then we may anticipate that  (x, y, z) 2 (x, y, z) • choosing a constant in such a way that  is converted to = •  (x, y, z) = 2 (x, y, z)  2 d = 1 The total probability of finding the particle is 1. Forcing this condition on the wave function is called normalization.

  23. 2 d = 1 Normalized wave function • If  is complex then replace 2 by * • If the function is not normalized, it can be done by multiplication of the wave function by a constant N such that • N22 d = 1 • N is termed as Normalization Constant

  24. Eigen values • The permissible values that a dynamical variable may have are those given by •  = a • - eigen function of the operator  that corresponds to the observable whose permissible values are a •  -operator •  - wave function • a - eigen value

  25.  = a If performing the operation on the wave function yields original function multiplied by a constant, then  is an eigen function of the operator   = e2x and the operator  = d/dx Operating on the function with the operator d /dx = 2e2x = constant.e2x e2x is an eigen function of the operator 

  26. For a given system, there may be various possible values. As most of the properties may vary, we desire to determine the averageor expectationvalue. We know  = a Multiply both side of the equation by * * = *a To get the sum of the probability over all space * d =  *a d a – constant, not affected by the order of operation

  27. Removing ‘a’ from the integral and solving for ‘a’ a = * d/ * d  cannot be removed from the integral. a = <  >/ <  >

  28. Chemical Bonding • Two existing theories, • Molecular Orbital Theory (MOT) • Valence Bond Theory (VBT) Molecular Orbital Theory • MOT starts with the idea that the quantum mechanical principles applied to atoms may be applied equally well to the molecules.

  29. H-CC-H

  30. Simplest possible molecule:H2+ : 2 nuclei and 1 electron. • Let the two nuclei be labeled as A and B & wave functions as A & B. • Since the complete MO has characteristics separately possessed by A and B, •  = CAA + CBB • or  = N(A +B) •  = CB/CA, and N - normalization constant

  31. This method is known as Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals or LCAO • A and B are same atomic orbitals except for their different origin. • By symmetry A and B must appear with equal weight and we can therefore write • 2 = 1, or  = ±1 • Therefore, the two allowed MO’s are •  = A±B

  32. For A+Bwe can now calculate the energy • From Variation Theorem we can write the energy function as • E = A+B H A+B/A+B A+B

  33. Looking at the numerator: E = A+B H A+B/A+B A+B • A+B H A+B = A H A + • B H B + • A H B + • B H A • = A H A + B H B +2AHB

  34. = A H A + B H B + 2AHB ground state energy of a hydrogen atom. let us call this as EA AHB = BHA =   = resonance integral  Numerator = 2EA + 2 

  35. Looking at the denominator: E = A+B H A+B/A+B A+B • A+BA+B = AA + • B B + • AB + • BA • = AA + BB + 2AB

  36. = AA + BB + 2AB A and B are normalized, so AA = BB = 1 AB = BA = S, S = Overlap integral.  Denominator = 2(1 + S)

  37. Summing Up . . . E = A+B H A+B/A+B A+B Numerator = 2EA + 2  Denominator = 2(1 + S) E+ = (EA + )/ (1 + S) Also E- = (EA - )/ (1 – S) E± = EA ±  S is very small  Neglect S

  38. B A  EA +  Energy level diagram EA - 

  39. Linear combination of atomic orbitals Rules for linear combination 1. Atomic orbitals must be roughly of the same energy. 2. The orbital must overlap one another as much as possible- atoms must be close enough for effective overlap. 3. In order to produce bonding and antibonding MOs, either the symmetry of two atomic orbital must remain unchanged when rotated about the internuclear line or both atomic orbitals must change symmetry in identical manner.

  40. Rules for the use of MOs * When two AOs mix, two MOs will be produced * Each orbital can have a total of two electrons (Pauli principle) * Lowest energy orbitals are filled first (Aufbau principle) * Unpaired electrons have parallel spin (Hund’s rule) Bond order = ½ (bonding electrons – antibonding electrons)

  41. Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO) The wave function for the molecular orbitals can be approximated by taking linear combinations of atomic orbitals. A B c – extent to which each AO contributes to the MO AB = N(cA A + cBB) 2AB = (cA2A2 + 2cAcB A B + cB2 B 2) Overlap integral Probability density

  42. Amplitudes of wave functions added Constructive interference g bonding cA = cB = 1 g = N [A + B]

  43. 2AB = (cA2A2 + 2cAcB A B + cB2 B 2) density between atoms electron density on original atoms,

  44. The accumulation of electron density between the nuclei put the electron in a position where it interacts strongly with both nuclei. Nuclei are shielded from each other The energy of the molecule is lower

  45. node + - u cA = +1, cB = -1 antibonding u = N [A - B] Amplitudes of wave functions subtracted. Destructive interference Nodal plane perpendicular to the H-H bond axis (en density = 0) Energy of the en in this orbital is higher. A-B

  46. The electron is excluded from internuclear region  destabilizing Antibonding

  47. Molecular potential energy curve shows the variation of the molecular energy with internuclear separation.

  48. Looking at the Energy Profile • Bonding orbital • called 1s orbital • s electron • The energy of 1s orbital decreases as R decreases • However at small separation, repulsion becomes large • There is a minimum in potential energy curve

More Related