INTRODUCTION TO QUALITATIVE PSYCHOLOGY Tutor: Lucy Yardley

1. INTRODUCTION TO QUALITATIVE PSYCHOLOGYTutor: Lucy Yardley • Quality and qualitative research • Qualitative data collection • Qualitative data analysis 1 • Qualitative data analysis 2

2. Why do YOU need to know about qualitative research? • Qualitative research is increasingly used in psychological and related research • A basic understanding of qualitative methods is needed to be able to critically evaluate qualitative studies • Psychologists traditionally have had insufficient training in qualitative methods to be able to understand the appropriate aims and methods • Most of you will be carrying out a qualitative study

3. QUALITY AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH The aim of this session is to a) consider some fundamental issues regarding the similarities and differences between qualitative and quantitative research methods • stimulate thinking and debate on these issues

4. By the end of this session you should be able to formulate answers to the following questions: • How does qualitative research differ from quantitative research? • What are the benefits and drawbacks of using qualitative methods? • Why is it important to establish criteria for validity? • What quality criteria can be applied to qualitative and quantitative research? • What specific methods can be used to establish the validity of a qualitative analysis?

5. You will obtain immediate feedback on your learning in this session in group and tutorial discussions of the answers that you formulate in the session (during quizzes and set exercises). • You should consolidate and extend your knowledge of the concepts introduced in this session by reading the recommended chapters/papers.

6. Structure of this session • Different aims and methods of qualitative and quantitative research • Quiz, discussion and break • Demonstrating the validity of your (qualitative) research • Discussion in tutorial groups

7. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE METHODS "Qualitative methods" have become the symbol for a debate between different philosophies: REALIST / POSITIVIST / SCIENTIFIC APPROACH related to Cartesian dualism: Descartes’ famous tenet "cogito ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am) - (subjective) self is mental, can be known directly • (objective) body/world is physical, can be known through observation

8. CONSTRUCTIVIST/ SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONIST / INTERPRETIVE APPROACH related to phenomenology, post-structuralism: - all our ‘knowledge’ (including of ‘self’ and ‘body/world’) is perspectival or constructed i.e. mediated, constrained by our own perspective, purposes, language and culture Which philosophical position do you hold?

9. How to choose epistemological position? N.B. correct ontology/epistemology can never be proven! • can use qualitative OR quantitative methods for most approaches - but qualitative approaches lend themselves to interpretive approach • most people positioned somewhere between the two poles, use mixed approaches • both positions diverse, evolving

10. How do quantitative and qualitative approaches to research differ? Traditional (realist/scientific) approaches (caricature) Assumptions • A value-free natural, objective reality exists - though observations of reality may be distorted by sources of error • Science is supreme form of observation in the search for truth, subjects are essentially error-prone sources of data Aims • Search for accurate, objective (numerical) measurements of phenomenon • Search for generalizable laws causally relating these phenomena, permitting control (manipulation)

11. Traditional (realist/scientific) approaches cont. Aims • Search for accurate, objective (numerical) measurements of phenomenon • Search for generalizable laws causally relating these phenomena, permitting control (manipulation) Methods • Isolation of variables for study from potential sources of error (e.g. restrained subject in laboratory) • Use empirical testing to confirm laws (by seeing if observations fit theoretical predictions) • Use statistical testing for analysis, validation

12. New (constructionist/interpretive) approaches(caricature) Assumptions • Differences in perceptions, interpretations are not error, since "reality" is "constituted" through interpretation, discourse, action • Science is a specialised form of discourse embedded in wider cultural values/practices, and forming part of these Aims • Develop rich, coherent, insightful description of phenomenon • Provide useful, compelling interpretation to influence future practice

13. New (constructionist/interpretive) approaches(caricature) Aims • Develop rich, coherent, insightful description of phenomenon • Provide useful, compelling interpretation to influence future practice Methods • In-depth, contextualised data-gathering, often using natural settings • Use inductive methods, dialogue with participants and data to develop tentative interpretation • Use persuasiveness/credibility of research as validation

14. What are the benefits of using qualitative methods? Depending on method used may PERMIT: • inductive exploration of new topic, development of new theory or discourse • holistic analysis of complex, dynamic and exceptional phenomena • study of contexts and processes not amenable to experimental manipulation - e.g. policy and management changes, natural/cultural contexts. • analysis of subjective and symbolic meaning, language and socio-linguistic interaction • analysis of investigator’s role in knowledge construction

15. What are the drawbacks of using qualitative methods? • not objective or reliable (but alternative criteria for quality will be considered in the next part of this session) • findings less precisely specified than when quantified, less suitable for prediction and control • because of the above, and small intensive samples, cannot test hypotheses (e.g. between group differences, relationships between variables) • interpretative approach therefore makes weaker claims for authority than those made by science - hence tends to have lower status, invites challenge • still somewhat less widely accepted and understood than scientific approach - can present difficulties in communication, achieving credibility, obtaining funding!

16. Summary: deciding where to go on holiday using quantitative methods

17. Summary: deciding where to go on holiday using qualitative methods

18. 1. Log into psyweb 2. Go to: www.psychology.soton.ac.uk/ quizzes/questions.htm 3. Answer only question 1 and submit - note which answer you choose

19. www.psychology.soton.ac.uk/ quizzes/show.htm Block/close PCs!

20. Different people give different accounts of the same event. Which of these explanations for this is most consistent with a constructionist perspective? • Some people’s accounts of events may be unreliable or biased (i.e. not true) because they are influenced by subjective perceptions and interpretations. • Whatever different people say about an event must be accepted as representing the truth, since it is true from the perspective of that individual. • Different accounts reflect the different interpretations that are linked to differences in the situation and motivations of each person. No account can provide an unbiased and complete description of the meanings of that event for all people.

21. Why is it important to establish criteria for validity? • criteria necessary to justify claims for value of research • criteria necessary to win acceptance within discipline, funders, policy makers etc. • criteria necessary to maintain/improve standards • criteria helpful for guiding/assessing individual pieces of research

22. Why is establishing the quality of qualitative research problematic? 1. Traditional criteria used for quantitative research inappropriate for most qualitative research. 2. Qualitative methods relatively new in psychology - criteria and validation ‘hierarchy’ not yet fully established (e.g. training, experts, journals etc.) 3. There are many different varieties of qualitative research, which require/employ different criteria for validation.

23. Why are traditional criteria for quality inappropriate for qualitative research? Objectivity Realist researchers seek to show that their measures are neutral, unbiased (e.g. standardised questionnaire) - but many qualitative researchers believe that the researcher inevitably influences the production of knowledge, cannot be ‘neutral’, should actively engage with participants rather than assert authority and control over research process

24. Why are traditional criteria for quality inappropriate for qualitative research? Reliability Realist researchers seek to obtain measurements which are consistent across different contexts (e.g. samples, time) - but many qualitative researchers believe that such consistency is obtained by artificially constraining or ignoring important individual/contextual variation (e.g. limiting responses, treating variability as ‘error’).

25. Why are traditional criteria for quality inappropriate for qualitative research? Generalisability Realist researchers seek to generalise their findings from a statistically representative sample to a wider population - but qualitative research a) is typically intensive, using small samples which cannot be statistically representative, and b) generally rejects abstracting ‘universal’ laws in favour of developing situated, particular analyses.

26. What quality criteria can be applied to (qualitative) research? OR how to demonstrate to an examiner or editor that your research merits a pass or publication! Taken from: L. Yardley (2000). Dilemmas in qualitative health research. Psychology and Health, 15, 215-228. But see also: R. Elliott et al. (1999). Evolving guidelines for publication of qualitative research studies in psychology and related fields. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 38, 215-229. and www.policyhub.gov.uk/docs/a_quality_framework.pdf

27. What specific methods can be used to establish the validity of a qualitative analysis? • Inter-rater reliability • Triangulation - of sources (people, places, times) - of investigators - of methods - of theoretical approaches 3. Deviant/disconfirming case analysis 4. Participant feedback/respondent validation 5. ‘Paper trail’ + making raw data available

28. theoretical relevant literature empirical data socio-cultural setting participants' perspectives ethical issues 1. Sensitivity to context

29. in-depth engagement with topic methodological competence/skill thorough data collection depth/breadth of analysis 2. Commitment and rigour

30. clarity and power of description/argument transparent methods and data presentation fit between theory and method reflexivity 3. Transparency and coherence

31. 4. Impact and importance SO WHAT? • Theoretical importance (enriching understanding) • socio-cultural importance (changing society) • practical (for community, policy makers, health workers)

32. Revision questions: avoiding common mistakes in qualitative assignments! You should avoid some very common mistakes in qualitative assignments if you can explain the following: • Why is trying to be objective (or neutral) irrelevant to a qualitative study? What should replace attempting to be objective? • Does what people say in interviews correspond to reality (i.e. is it true)? If not, what does interviewees’ talk represent? • Can you determine between group differences or establish relationships between variables in a qualitative study? If not, what can you look at instead?