汕头大学商学院 —— 功在商道，心达寰宇

1. New Pathway for Management Studies in China: Exploring Qualitative Research Methods of Business Anthropology Dr. Tian Guang Director of Business Anthropology Institute School of Business, Shantou University 汕头大学商学院——功在商道，心达寰宇

2. Contents 1、Abstract and Introduction 2、Reflections on Current Management Methodologies in China 3、Qualitative Research Methodology of Social Sciences 4、Application and Value of Qualitative Research Methods in Management 5、Contribution of Business Anthropology as a Branch of Anthropology to Management 6、Conclusions 汕头大学商学院——功在商道，心达寰宇

3. Abstract and Introduction: Purpose of this workshop Through an inventory of the existing literature body on the Chinese management studies, this workshop attempts to present a critic review on the phenomenon that the management studies in contemporary China over relies on quantitative research methodology. The workshop endeavors to demonstrate that the nature of scientific research is to innovate by seeking truth and therefore should not be restricted by research methods, let alone quantitative methods. In order to improve the effectiveness of academic researches, the workshop will help the scholars in China positively adopt the anthropological methodologies to conduct management studies and to enhance the process of the localization of management science in the country.

4. Abstract and Introduction: Design and approach It is designed to broaden the approaches toward Chinese management studies by introducing business anthropological methods to the Chinese management scholars. It adopts a comparative and case study methodology to demonstrate the limitations of quantitative methods and to illustrate the effectiveness of business anthropological approaches for management studies in the Chinese context.

5. Abstract and Introduction: Principal ideas and arguments The existing literature body demonstrates that excessive amounts of quantitative research approaches are utilized in current management studies while the effectiveness of qualitative methods are largely ignored by the scholars in China. The necessity for further understanding of qualitative research methods in management studies has been recognized more recently by the Chinese scholars who tend to agree that qualitative and quantitative research methodologies are simply different in approaches, while the results are the same. One of effective new paths of improving management studies and management practices is to apply anthropological research methods so that management theory in China can better explain actual human responses and factors that influence their behaviors.

6. Abstract and Introduction: Practical implications Anthropology has always been employed for practical applications. Anthropological methods can enlarge the approaches to the management studies and widen the scope for scholars to conduct their research. The combination of anthropology and management will accelerate the localization of management studies and accordingly speed up systematically establishing the Chinese management theory to promote the management practices in modern China.

7. Abstract and Introduction: Originality Business anthropology is emerging among a number of outstanding qualitative research methods of Western management studies. China’s management science community on the other hand is still a little behind in this respect. Our workshop is one of the pilot programs to elaborate on business anthropology as well as its contribution to specific areas in management studies, such as marketing management, product design and entrepreneurship in the Chinese context.

8. Abstract and Introduction With over three decades of development, management is no longer exotic in China, and Chinese management scholars are no longer solely satisfied with the application of Western management theory in China’s management practices. What China requires is management originating from home, developed at home and applicable to home, which is not only an expectation but also a requirement. Over three decades of experience has revealed that based on its own institutional environment, Western managementtheory is closely related to its political, economic and cultural background, and the theory and methods of which are not“localized” to China. 汕头大学商学院——功在商道，心达寰宇

9. Abstract and Introduction China has accumulated sufficient practical experience in management and the survival and development environment for Chinese enterprises, which are different from those of Western countries. The reality requires management researchers in China to contemplate and explore social science attributes of management science. The paths and approaches of management research may differ depending on culture, and to a large extent, there is a significant difference in the rules and practices of management due to cultural diversity. 汕头大学商学院——功在商道，心达寰宇

10. Abstract and Introduction Qualitative research and quantitative research are merely different in approaches, while the results are the same. Appropriate research methods should be adopted in accordance with specific research backgrounds because both quantitative and qualitative methods provide assistance for research contents and objectives. The essence of scientific research is innovation and its principle is to eliminate the false and retain the true. Only with more excellent research and more widely accepted target of research can we offer greater contributions to the development of academic research. 汕头大学商学院——功在商道，心达寰宇

11. Abstract and Introduction Chinese scholars argue that it is not difficult to discover the true reason for the weakness of qualitative research after review, because it is lack of formal classic qualitative methodological theory and paradigm in the Chinese management academia. A number of qualitative research methods are applied maturely in Western social sciences and management studies, which definitely provide a paradigm for the research of qualitative methodology in China while considering new subjects of research. 汕头大学商学院——功在商道，心达寰宇

12. Abstract and Introduction As a branch of applied anthropology, business anthropology is emerging among a number of outstanding qualitative research methods of Western management research. The management studies and management practices need to take the perspective and methodology of business anthropology,because it can contribute to specific areas in management research, such as marketing, product design and entrepreneurship. Furthermore, the outlet for development of management in China ultimately lies in the exploration of new paths of localization based on the national conditions within China, for which business anthropology can make its contribution. 汕头大学商学院——功在商道，心达寰宇

13. Current Management Research in China Excessive amounts of quantitative research approaches such as quantitative modeling and econometric testing are utilized in current management research in China. More than 400 papers in Chinese and English were selected during the 4th International Association for Chinese Management Research (IACMR) (authors are authorities in China’s management academia) and over 90% of which employ quantitative modeling. I directed students randomly selected 500 papers among 30 of the most important academic journals in management science in 2014. It was also found that nearly 90% of them focus on quantitative modeling and econometric tests.

14. Current Management Research in China American management academia has passed through the myth stage when only scientific empirical research papers accepted. Now American scholars focus more on the analysis of cultural background and social environment while also advocating for appropriate usage of computing and mathematical modeling in management research and management practices throughout a dynamic evolution of exploring subject rigor and practice correlation. It is undoubtedly a pity that China continues to repeat the mistake of American management academia in this respect with the historical background of quantitative research methods replacing research innovation during research on management and management practices in the United States.

15. Current Management Research in China A major reason for preference for econometric models and statistical computing is that quantitative analysis approaches are the death strike for papers with little substance and knowledge innovation and are also the top choice of academic journals short of profound insights to avoid criticism. The loss of current management research methodologies in China results from eagerness for quick success and instant benefits. Quantitative modeling analysis is a “latent rule”, as well as a permit for academic exploration. The practice, however, fully breaks from the original objectives and values of research. The method serves research contents, and content innovation is precisely the essence of research.

16. Current Management Research in China Starting from the historical origin of the school of management in Chinese universities, some scholars attribute the “natural” preference for quantitative research to the drawback of establishing school of management based on the tradition of engineering colleges. Those management scholars, however, who exclusively prefer quantitative research might forget the essence of management is human behavior. Management according to them is likely to descend to digital games.

17. Current Management Research in China Research methods should not be regarded as the sole criterion for determining research quality. Good research should be innovative with the false eliminated and the truth retained. The essence is to be innovative, and the principle is to eliminate the false and retain the true. Only through innovation can mediocre thoughts be avoided and prevented.

18. Current Management Research in China Current situation Preference for econometric models Quantitative analysis approaches are the death strike for papers with little substance knowledge innovation Excessive amounts of quantitative research approaches Loss of current management research methodologies The essence of research methods Innovative, eliminate the false and retain the true Eagerness for quick success and instant benefits. 汕头大学商学院——功在商道，心达寰宇

19. Qualitative Research Methodology of Social Sciences Qualitative research and quantitative research are two means to achieve the same goal. This goal is to investigate the essence of the same matter from different perspectives, at different levels and through different modes of operation. A comprehensive and deep understanding of matters can be realized for qualitative research through long-term in-depth experience, investigation and analysis throughout the interaction between researchers and research subjects. For quantitative research, on the other hand, the comprehensive and deep understanding of matters is achieved through measurement and computation of quantifiable content and analysis of correlation between variables.

20. Qualitative Research Methodology of Social Sciences Most arguments about “quantitative” and “qualitative” research in fact extend from literal interpretation to actual operation. Various methods should be employed according to actual research however simple or complex the research contents and paradigms happen to be. The root of the differences is that researchers in favor of quantitative methods regard themselves as simply trying to understand and interpret objective laws and social phenomenon, while not intervening nor influencing targets of research. Researchers in favor of qualitative methods, on the other hand, place themselves and targets of research under the same umbrella, learning and experiencing acts, values, moral standards, customs and cultural forms.

21. Qualitative Research Methodology of Social Sciences For social sciences research in particular, the involvement of researchers in targets of research is a long-term and painstaking processes as if reeling silk from cocoons. This workshop will not go into details, but focus on qualitative research methods in view of a strong preference for quantitative research methods in domestic management research and scholarly recognition. Classical quantitative research methods primarily include: phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, and critical incident method.

22. Qualitative Methods Classical qualitative research methods primarily include: phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, and critical incident method. Phenomenology Grounded theory Ethnographic Critical incident analysis 汕头大学商学院——功在商道，心达寰宇

23. Phenomenology Steps “Phenomenology” can be roughly divided into four sub-concepts, including phenomenology in its broadest sense, which is its strictest sense in its strictest sense. 7 explaining the implication of phenomenon. 6 offering belief in phenomenon 5 investigating the method of manifestation 4 observing the composition of phenomenon in consciousness 3 understanding the essential relationship between various essences 2 Western scholars divide phenomenology into seven steps. exploration of general essence 1 1 study of special phenomenon 汕头大学商学院——功在商道，心达寰宇

24. Phenomenology Phenomenology is the study of experience and how we experience. It studies structures of conscious experience as experienced from a subjective or first-person point of view, along with its "intentionality" (the way an experience is directed toward a certain object in the world). It then leads to analyses of conditions of the possibility of intentionality, conditions involving motor skills and habits, background social practices and, often, language. Some steps of phenomenology can be regarded as original and unique, especially observation of the method of manifestation and the revelation of the composition of phenomenon in human consciousness. Basically, the originality of phenomenology is based on the decisive influence of the worship of philosophy.

25. Grounded Theory Grounded theory as a qualitative research method plays an important role in the establishment of theory based on empirical data. Grounded theory is a research methodthat will enable you to: • develop a theory which offers and explanation about • the main concern of the population of our substantive area and how that concern is resolved or processed. As a research tool it enables us to seek out and conceptualize the latent social patterns and structures of our area of interest through the process of constant comparison. Initially we will use an inductive approach to generate substantive codes from our data, later our developing theory will suggest to us where to go next to collect data and which, more-focused, questions to ask. This is the deductive phase of the grounded theory process.

26. Grounded Theory Major Features generate concepts from constantly condensed data g maintain sensitive to the concepts in available data compare data and concepts continuously 1 5 2 4 3 6 take the theory generated from the data personal interpretation plays an important role in constructing theories do not overuse past documents 汕头大学商学院——功在商道，心达寰宇

27. Grounded Theory Grounded theory contains a complete standard for testing and evaluating concepts and basically consistent research process: • open and selective coding • constant comparison • theoretical sampling • theoretical saturation • theoretical coding • memo writing and hand sorting of memos In general, grounded theory is quite applicable to research on individual development processes, interpersonal relationships within groups, and interaction between individuals and groups.

28. Ethnographic Research The ethnographic research method is an important research technique in anthropology, often a series of intensive and long-term field observation projects which study the targets of research in light of local cultural backgrounds. It primarily includes two stages: identification of location and involvement, data collection and analysis. From the perspective of the culture concept, anthropologists must first treat all these elements as symbols within a coherent system and, accordingly, must record observations with due attention to the cultural context and the meanings assigned by the culture's practitioners. identification of location and involvement data collection and analysis 汕头大学商学院——功在商道，心达寰宇

29. Ethnographic Research Data collected from directly observable material items, individual behaviors and performances (ceremonies, fights, games, meals), as well as ideas and arrangements that exist only in people's heads. Techniques: participant observation and key informant interviewing. Anthropologists will frequently to do quantitative research from which statistically validated inferences can be drawn. What I preferred is to do three way checking, triangular verifying. participant observation  key informant interviewing. 汕头大学商学院——功在商道，心达寰宇

30. Ethnographic Research • Participant observation is based on living among the people under study for a lengthy period, and gathering data through continuous involvement in their lives and activities. • The ethnographer begins systematic observation and keeps daily field notes, in which the significant events of each day are recorded along with informants' interpretations. • Initial observations focus on general, open ended data gathering derived from learning the most basic cultural rules and usually the local language as well. • This initial orientation process is important not only for providing a background for more narrowly focused investigation but also helps the anthropologist to gain rapport with his/her informants. 汕头大学商学院——功在商道，心达寰宇

31. Ethnographic Research • After the initial orientation or entry period the researcher follows a more systematic program of formal interviews involving questions related to research hypotheses and specialized topics. • Several different methods of selecting informants are possible. Usually a few key informants (between 10-20) are selected for in-depth sessions, since the investigation of cultural patterns usually calls for lengthy and repeated open ended interviews. • Selection of such a small number does not allow for strict assurance of a representative sample, so the anthropologist must be careful to choose subjects who are well informed and reliable. 汕头大学商学院——功在商道，心达寰宇

32. Ethnographic Research • Ethnographic researchers will also train informants to systematically report cultural data and recognize significant cultural elements and interconnections as the interview sequences unfold. • Key informant selection is termed as judgment sampling and is very important for ethnographic research. • Interviewing is an effective method to learn from people what they believe, how they think, and how that affects their life.   • Fully-structured and semi-structured.  Interviews should be crafted to answer a research question that could be developed from participate observations.   • Long interviews • Surveys 汕头大学商学院——功在商道，心达寰宇

33. Ethnographic Research • In traditional anthropological field research, researchers and respondents maintain long-term interaction, and research can only be conducted when researchers become a member of the cultural systems of the respondents. • Inside out vs. outside in: During various data collection, ethnographers turn themselves from passive observers to proactive . • Therefore, ethnography as a qualitative research method is not only a science but also an art, which can perfectly combine creative tools with well-organized target of research and instincts . 汕头大学商学院——功在商道，心达寰宇

34. Ethnographic Research Participant Observation Tools: A research journal for field notes is a very practical way to keep track of your observations.  After an extended period, flipping through your journal, you might notice patterns that you had not realized were prevalent as you witnessed them in person.  Also, as memory fails it is very important to have detailed notes of what you observed; otherwise your observations are meaningless. Journals are also valuable for recognizing our own biases or prejudices.  It is here that we might begin to question some of our interpretations, and here where we might realize possibilities that had not yet occurred to you.  When conducting fieldwork, we should always question ourselves to make sure that we are in the right track of our research.  汕头大学商学院——功在商道，心达寰宇

35. Ethnographic Research Interviewing Tools: It is extremely important to record all interviews conducted as memory is not a sufficient source for citation.   Transcriptions are required.  The more you transcribe, the more protection provided for your research and analysis.  Partial transcriptions are good for transcribing only the necessary or most valuable parts of your interview.   We may not know what is the most valuable information we receives when hear it. It is beneficial to take light notes during the interview and extensive notes of what remember after the interview.   Do not focus heavily on the note-taking in case miss what our interviewee is saying.  汕头大学商学院——功在商道，心达寰宇

36. Critical Incident Analysis Critical incidents are those which cause us to think and reflect, which leads to learning about ourselves or others (individuals and organizations) or about processes (e.g. about learning to be a social worker, the social work task or organizational policies and procedures). Most critical incidents are not at all dramatic or obvious but commonplace events that occur routinely in social work education and/or professional practice. What makes them “critical” is that they have caused us to think and reflect at this particular time (such as when something went better than expected, or vice versa ).

37. Critical Incident Analysis Advantages It include critical events or situations, choice of events, some repeatedly mentioned details，things such as their values and cultural factors. Respondents are required to recall their behaviors, ideas, and attitudes, which is an important premise for further normative analysis. personal understanding of respondents, all data are original an inductive logical derivation provides important things applicable to research on differences of individual perception 汕头大学商学院——功在商道，心达寰宇

38. Critical Incident Analysis Framework Account of the incident What happened, where and when; who was involved? What was your role/ involvement in the incident? What was the context of this incident, e.g. previous involvement of yourself or other from this agency with this client/ client group? What was the purpose and focus of your contact/ intervention at this point? Initial responses to the incident 1. What were your thoughts and feelings at the time of this incident? 2. What were the responses of other key individuals to this incident? If not known, what do you think these might have been?

39. Critical Incident Analysis Framework Issues and dilemmas highlighted by this incident 1. What practice dilemmas were identified as a result of this incident? 2. What are the values and ethical issues which are highlighted by this incident? 3. Are there implications for inter-disciplinary and/ or inter-agency collaborations which you have identified as a result of this incident?

40. Critical Incident Analysis Framework Learning 1. What have you learned, e.g. about yourself, relationships with others, the social work task, organizational policies, and procedures? 2. What theory (or theories) has (or might have) helped develop your understanding about some aspect of this incident? 3. What research has (or might have) helped develop your understanding about some aspect of this incident? 4. How might an understanding of the legislative, organizational and policy contexts explain some aspects associated with this incident? 5. What future learning needs have you identified as a result of this incident? How might this be achieved?

41. Critical Incident Analysis Framework Outcomes 1. What were the outcomes of this incident for the various participants? 2. Are there ways in which this incident has led (or might lead to) changes in how you think, feel or act in particular situations? 3. What are your thoughts and feelings now about this incident?

42. Application and Value of Qualitative Research Methods in Management There are significant differences between qualitative research and quantitative research in terms of research process and design. Qualitative research is regarded as an interactive process during which researchers and respondents influence and learn from one another. With both advantages and disadvantages, research methods should be selected properly and in accordance with research contents under specific research backgrounds, never allowing research methods to determine research contents and objectives.

43. Application and Value of Qualitative Research Methods in Management Oversimplified classification of qualitative and quantitative research could absolutely result in opposition that prevents mutual learning and assimilation. As both quantitative and qualitative researches seek for a comprehensive and profound understanding of things, in essence there is no opposition between methods. Under this basic principle, to satisfy research requirements and deepening research, qualitative and quantitative research can be perfectly combined. The rough standards for distinguishing qualitative and quantitative research are of no practical significance to research itself.

44. Application and Value of Qualitative Research Methods in Management Management means coordinating relationships between humans and objects, and between objects through coordinating interpersonal relationships. This could mean tacit and or explicit understanding so as to complete tasks. The research contents of management is the coordination of interpersonal relationships, and the objective is to achieve maximum efficiency through coordination between human resources, financial resources and material resources. Researchers should be content and objective-oriented as they choose the optimal research methods or combination. They should avoid remaining mired in research methods.

45. Application and Value of Qualitative Research Methods in Management Classical research is composed of several important steps: 1, to define targets of research; 2, to determine research contents; 3, to conduct literature review; 4, to make an analysis of relations; 5, to raise hypotheses, collect data, refine original data; and 6, to present the final conclusions. Using the four important qualitative research methods discussed previously, from domestic top academic journals of management and elaborates on the application of research methods, hereby we select representative articles to make a brief statement. It can be clearly seen that qualitative research methods play an important driving role in each step of the research.

46. Application and Value of Qualitative Research Methods in Management In terms of management research, standard qualitative research begins by defining targets of research, constructing object-based concepts, summarizing the logical relationship between concepts through literature review to obtain dimensionalities and levels involved so that the composition, and targets of research and the relationship between each component can be described and analyzed through phenomenology. Based on cognitive theory and phenomenological interview, Jiang et al. (2012) put forward a preliminary theoretical framework for the brand product knowledge system formed by consumer construction.

47. Application and Value of Qualitative Research Methods in Management Previous conceptual and empirical researches have not specifically touched upon the means of defining consumer brand product knowledge. Jiang’s qualittative research enables people to have a more profound understanding of the significance and nature of daily life experience, which also broadens the traditional thinking which confines the analysis of brand product cognition to association of brand physical characteristics and brand function evaluation. In terms of learning the background of targets of research and collecting data, anthropological ethnography methods can best reach the research requirements. Data are later collected by means of interview, observation and object analysis.

48. Application and Value of Qualitative Research Methods in Management Critical incident methods can collect original and private valuable information about targets of research. For example, Wang Zhijin (2009) constructed a model of personal information management (PIM) behavior by ethnographic research. He worked out the critical tasks in every stage according to the model. When the ethnographic method is employed for research PIM, it stresses that data should be collected in a natural context, which should only be utilized as evidence of user PIM behavioral processes. The research also provides an outlook on the application of ethnography in PIM and information management, it gives high recognition to ethnographic methods in regard to the pertinence, comprehensiveness, and accuracy of information collection.

49. Application and Value of Qualitative Research Methods in Management By using the critical incident method, Fei et al. (2001) conducted exploratory research on critical incidents of consumer guilt from different samples. The research firstly made a descriptive analysis of consumer guilt in different perspectives through content analysis, and then summarized the actions that marketers take to trigger consumer guilt, as well as the response of consumers and their relations. The original data acquired should also be classified, filed and encoded. The classified and staged analytical methods of original data are generally based on “Grounded Theory” in current mainstream research.

50. Application and Value of Qualitative Research Methods in Management Xu Lan et al. (2010) revealed four different mechanisms of consumer socialization in the intergenerational influence of parental brands with Mengniu Dairy as the target of research by grounded theory as the main research method. Li Zhigang et al. (2006) utilized the rapid growth model of Mengniu Dairy, which is characterized by accumulation, imitation and creation to explore the factors that influence the two development stages of imitation and creation. The research focused on the richness of information of target enterprises rather than the sample size.