International Financial Statement Analysis: Accounting Differences and Assessments

1. Chapter 5 International Financial Statement Analysis Dosen Pengampu : Dra. Siti Nurlaela, SE, M.Si.,Ak., CA

2. FASB, IASB, and IAAER Project on Financial Reporting • Questions addressed in this project include • Should the performance (income) statement be the primary focus of financial reporting? • How should the performance statement complement the other financial statements? • How should the cash flow statement be used? • What information should be presented in the performance statement? • Is one approach applicable to all countries? International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 5 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

3. International Accounting Differences and Financial Statement Analysis • The key question • How do differences in accounting affect earnings and cash flow assessments? • These assessments are important to • Investors • Corporations concerned with foreign direct investment • Many companies are listing on international exchanges (London, New York) International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 5 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

4. Stock Market Comparisons International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 5 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

5. Accounting Diversity and Economic Environments International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 5 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

6. International Accounting Differences and Financial Statement Analysis • A tendency exists to looks at earnings from a home country perspective • This tendency may ignore accounting differences • A need exists to better understand foreign accounting principles in the context in which they are derived • International comparability is important in considering alternative investments International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 5 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

7. Inventory measurement Generally based on “lower of cost or market” with market defined as either Net realizable value Replacement cost LIFO is permitted for tax purposes in U.S. and Japan, but not in the EU Construction contracts Wide usage of percentage-of-completion method Completed contract method – Switzerland, China, Japan Major Differences in Accounting Principles Around the World International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 5 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

8. Measurement basis used Historical cost is used in the U.S., Brazil, Switzerland, China, and Japan. More flexible approach with some restatements to market value or replacement cost – U.K., Holland Depreciation accounting Useful economic life concept – U.S. and EU Accelerated methods – France, Germany, Switzerland, Japan Major Differences in Accounting Principles Around the World International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 5 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

9. R&D costs Expensed immediately in Anglo-American and Germanic countries Brazil has a more flexible approach Some countries allow capitalizing the borrowed cost of assets Retirement benefits Generally accounted for on the basis of accrued and/or projected benefits payable to employees Pay-as-you-go approach in Brazil and China Major Differences in Accounting Principles Around the World International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 5 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

10. Taxation Accounting income strongly influenced by the tax system in France, Germany, Brazil, Switzerland Business Combinations Varies with allowance of pooling-of-interests Purchase method is generally required Goodwill is amortized in Brazil, China, and Japan Goodwill impairment tests are used in U.S., U.K. Major Differences in Accounting Principles Around the World International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 5 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

11. Major Differences in Accounting Principles Around the World • Intangibles • Generally are capitalized and subject to amortization or impairment tests • Exception – Switzerland • Foreign Currency Translation • Choice between average or closing rate • Generally flexible; actual or average rate allowed • Big Question: Do these differences matter? International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 5 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

12. The Impact of U.S.-U.K. Accounting Differences Index of conservatism (Gray, 1980) 1 – [RA – RD / l RA l] Where RA = adjusted earnings (or returns) RD = disclosed earnings Therefore, 1 – [U.S. GAAP Earnings – U.K. GAAP Earnings / l U.S. GAAP Earnings l] If index value > 1, U.K. GAAP earnings are less “conservative” If index value < 1, U.K. GAAP earnings are more “conservative” International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 5 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

13. Example 1 U.K. earnings £110 million U.S. earnings £100 million Index 1 – [100-100]/100 = 1.1 Example 2 U.K. earnings £90 million U.S. earnings £100 million Index 1 – [100-90]/100 = 0.9 The Impact of U.S.-U.K. Accounting Differences International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 5 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

14. The Impact of U.S.-U.K. Accounting Differences It is possible to establish the relative effect of individual adjustments with partial indices of adjustment Partial index of “conservatism” 1 – [partial adjustment / l U.S. GAAP Earnings l ] International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 5 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

15. The Impact of U.S.-U.K. Accounting Differences Example Millions of Pounds U.K. GAAP earnings 120 Adjustments for U.S. GAAP: Deferred taxation (15) Goodwill amortization (5) Adjusted earnings per U.S. GAAP (100) Overall index of ‘conservatism’ 1.2 Partial index for deferred taxation 1 – [-15/100] = 1.15 Partial index for goodwill 1 – [-5/100] = 1.05 International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 5 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

16. The Impact of U.S.-U.K. Accounting Differences • Differences between methods are illustrated in the Form 20-F report • Form 20-F can be used to test how conservative U.S. and U.K. GAAP are in comparison with each other • Form 20-F is reliable because it is provided by the company itself • Research findings show U.K. GAAP to be less conservative International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 5 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

17. A Global Perspective on Earnings Management • How do Anglo-American earnings compare with continental Europe and Japan? • Continental Europe • Gray (1980) compared French and German companies to British companies • Insert Exhibit 5.8, 5.9 • French and German earnings are more conservative than British earnings • Weetman and Gray (1991) found that • Netherlands was less conservative that Sweden, U.K. • Swedish methods were more conservative than U.S. GAAP International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 5 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

18. A Global Perspective on Earnings Management • Japan • Earnings are relatively understated compared to the U.S. (33.9%, according to Aron (1991) • Historically high PE ratios were deflated by adjustments for reserves, consolidation practices, depreciation, cross-holdings, and differences in capitalization (Morgan Stanley) • Higher levels of gearing (leverage) and short-term payables are tolerated because of long-term relationships with bankers and suppliers • Emphasis tends to be on long-term growth rather than instant profitability International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 5 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

19. Factors Influencing Measurement Differences • U.S. and U.K. • Stock market is the dominant influence • Information needs of investors encourage a more “optimistic” view of earnings and higher share prices • Accounting principles are flexible • Accounting profession is independent • Tax rules have a limited influence • Cultural values motivate a less conservative approach to measurement International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 5 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

20. Factors Influencing Measurement Differences • Continental Europe and Japan • Taxation and sources of finance are influential • Tradition of commercial codes and accounting plans • Tendency to report lower earnings for tax purposes International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 5 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

21. Factors Influencing Measurement Differences • Continental Europe and Japan • Users of financial information may be more concerned with balance sheet information • Black and White (2003) findings • Balance sheet info is more informative in Germany, Japan • Income statement is more relative in the U.S. • Professional influence is low due to legal requirements related to accounting • Cultural values motivate a more conservative approach International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 5 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black

22. Global Accounting Convergence • IASB sets IFRS • Goal is to develop comparable international standards with low cost to MNEs • Provides a model for developing countries • More uniform standards have been developed to aid in capital raisings and stock exchange listings • Core standards program with IOSCO was completed in 1998 • May 2000 – IOSCO endorsed IFRS • EU will adopt IFRS in 2005 • Will the U.S. accept IFRS? International Accounting & Multinational Enterprises - Chapter 5 - Radebaugh, Gray, Black