OBJECTIVES AND HYPOTHESES

1. OBJECTIVES AND HYPOTHESES EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

2. Objectives: • This what you want to accomplish through research. It is a research objectives. Example: to find out why students are not performing well in class. • This is not what you intend to do to solve the problem. You can’t write Objektif kajian ini ialah untuk menyediakan module latihan. This is not the research objective. This is the product of the reseach EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

3. Have to write general objective as well as specific objectives Specific objectives may be written in (1) question forms (2) hypothesis Depending on the type of research. Descriptive research questions Ex post facto and experimental hypothesis EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

4. However, people normally write specific objectives in objectives forms. Then they will proceed with writing research questions or hypothesis Objectives (G & S) are best located after the problem statement EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

5. Characteristics of specific objectives • specifically identify the variables being investigated • instead of achievement of students • use specific operational definition like GPA, Score on test • instead of charactersitics of students write like age, sex, grade level, SES • If specific relationship being investigated, should state what variables are being related to what variables • Indicate the nature of the relationship being investigated (explantory or cause effect) EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

6. PENCAPAIAN OBJEKTIF KURIKULUM BERSEPADU SEKOLAH RENDAH DI KALANGAN PELAJAR BERMASALAH PENDENGARAN DALAM PROGRAM PERCANTUMAN PENDIDIKAN KHAS • OBJEKTIF KAJIAN: • Objektif umum kajian ini adalah untuk mengenal pasti pencapaian objektif KBSR oleh murid program percantuman masalah pendengaran dari aspek guru besar, guru, suasana tugas, komitmen dan kemuduhan EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

7. Contoh-contoh soalan kajian: Apakah persepsi guru besar program percantuman masalah pendengaran terhadap pelaksanaan pengajaran dan pembelajaran? Adakah terdapat hubungan antara umur dan pengalaman guru pendidikan khas masalah pendengaran dengan pelaksanaan pengajaran dan pembelajaran? Adakah terhadapt hubungan antara umur dan pengalaman guru pendidikan khas masalah pendengaran dengan suasana tugas mereka? Adakaha terdapat hubungan di anatara umur dan pengalaman guru pendidikan khas masalah pendengaran dengan tahap kemudahan yang disediakan? EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

8. PERSEPSI GURU TERHADAP DISIPLIN PELAJAR DALAM KEPEMIMPINAN PENGETUA SEKOLAH-SEKOLAH MENENGAH DI DAERaH KOTA BAHARU, KELANTAN Objektif umum: • Dapat mengetahui persepsi guru terhadap kepimpinana pengetua dalam menangani masalah disiplin pelajar di sekolah Khusus: • Perspsi guru terhadap faktor pelajar melanggarmasalah disiplin di sekolah • Persepsi guru terhadap peranan mereka terhadap disiplin pelajar • Persepsi guru terhadap implementasi hukuman yang dijalankan di sekolah • Persepsi guru terhadap kepemimpinan pengetuan dalam menggalakkan penglibatan ibu bapa EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

9. CONCEPTUALIzING CHANGE ON THE WWW: CAPTURING THE CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH IN WEB-BASED LEARNING AMONG ENGINEERING LECTURERS • Objectives General: • the general objective of the study is to examine the ways to incorporate the constructivist theory into web-based learning and teaching by engineering lecturers in the polytechniques. This will provide direction that not only help learners accomplish instructional objectives, but more importantly helps them become more successful, continual on-line learners EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

10. specifically, to describe the general pattern of usage of the WWW among engineering lecturers to study the extent of influence of various independent variables on the adoption of the WWW by engineering lecturer to relate the extent of the WWW usage with the application of constructivist approach by engineering lecturer to develop a simple path model connecting all the variables under investigation EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

11. Research questions: What is the pattern of web-based learning maong lecturers at politeknik? What are the engineering lecturer doing to upgarde themselves? How do engineering lecturers adopt and utilize the internet and its resources into the curr? To what extent do organizational factors influence the use of www by engineering lecturers to supplement their teaching learning tasks? EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

12. What is hypothesis? • A prediction • A tentative solution or expected answer to the question • Is a tool in the research process not the ends in themselves EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

13. To show that the researcher has sufficient knowledge in the area Gives direction to the collection and interpretation of data, reporting and conclusion Methods or research Sample statistics What is the effect of preschool training on the achievement of culutral disadvantage children in first grade? Culturally disadvantage children who has had preschool training achieve at a higher level than those who have not had preschool training Why have hypothesis? EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

14. Provide a relational statements that are directly testable in the study Question can’t be tested. Is the feedbact given by teachers beneficial for students? What statistics do we want to use? Chenge it into hypothesis: There is a relationship between teachers feedback and students achievement Students who received feedback from teachers obtained a significantly higher academic CGPA that those who do not. EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

15. To stimulate research endeavour that result in the accumulation of new knowledge EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

16. Types of hypotheses: Research hypothesis: hypothesis derived from theory or literature Also known as scientific hypothesis, alternative hypothesis, or control hypotheses They are stated in the proposal EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

17. Alternative hypothesis is the hypothesis that is accepted when null hypothesis is rejected WHEN WE TEST HYPOTHESIS WE ACTUALLY WANT TO NULLIFY THE NULL HYPOTHESIS. WE ACTUALLY TEST THE NULL HYPOTHESIS NOT THE RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

18. Kita nak mengatakan bahawa dalam populasi memang terdapat perbezaan pencapaian (misalnya). Kita nak mengatakan bahawa dalam populasi memang ada perbezaan skor ujian. Kita nak mengatakan bahawa dalam poluasi memang terdapat hubungan anatara jenis feed yang diberikan kepada lembu-lembu dan pertambahan berat badan lembu berkenaan. Kita nak katakan bertambahanya baja yang kita berikan kepada tanaman maka akan bertambahan hasil tanaman bekenaan. EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

19. Null hypothesis: also known as statistical hypotheses Hypotheses of no difference or no relationship Not stated in research proposal Ho: THERE IS NO RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AGE AND ONE’S WEALTH Ha: THERE IS A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AGE AND ONE’S WEALTH EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

20. Null hipotesis mungkin benar dan juga mungkin tidak benar. Dengan munggunakan statistik inference penyelidik akan membuat keputusan untuk menerima atau menolak hipothesis berkenaan. Misalnya kita membuat andaian bahawa  dalam populasi adalah bersamaan 100 (H o:  =100). Sekiranya kita menolak Ho :  =100 kita mengatakan bahawa dalam populasi  100. EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

21. Hypothesis can be written in directional and non-directional format Directional (One-tail) Ways of stating one-tail for continuous and categorical variables When it is appropriate o use one-tail test Non-directional hypotheses (two tail hypotheses) EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

22. Examples of directional hypotheses There is a positive relationship between the amount of study time and grade-point average Girls obtained a significantly higher scores on mathematic test than boys did Rejection region Acceptance region T=10.00 T=6.314 EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

23. Example of non-directional hypotheses • There is a relationship between study time and CGPA • The CGPA of both male and female students differ significantly T=10.00 T=12.706 EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

24. Let’s take the value of t at 1 df at .05 for one-tail is 6.314 The value of t at 1 df at .05 for two-tail is 12.706 Now let’s assume your calculated t is 10.00 Which hypothesis is much easier to be rejected EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

25. Rejecting true null is a serious offense. Why? Apakah kesanya jika kita tolak null hipotesis? Kita nak accept the true null hipotesis Tambah keyakinan dalam membuat keputusan EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

26. Falsely rejecting a true Ho is called a TYPE I ERROR (it is like finding an innocent person guilty). The probability of committing a type I error is always equal to alpha. Failure to reject a false Ho is called a TYPE II ERROR (like finding a guilty person innocent). EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

27. Type I error Type I error occurs when we reject the null hypothesis when in fact, the null hypothesis should be retained. Example a researcher might have concluded that the treatment works where in fact in reality the observe difference might be due to sampling error. We do not want to make type I error often because we will be making incorrect decision. EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

28. Consider a case in a drug experiment in which the researcher concluded that the new medication works significantly better than the placebo. Yet, this conclusion was a type I error. This is the mistake most researcher would not want to make. To avoid a type I error a statistical model has been developed whereby the researchers have control over the probability of making type I error. At alpha .05, the error is 5% of all cases. At .01, the error is 1% of all cases. Thus at .05, 5 errors will be made in 100 cases. At .01, 1 error will be made in 100 cases. EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

29. Bintulu setakat ini pada minggu pertama EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

30. Type II error Making type I error is embarrassing and we should try to avoid it. Yet in the process we may increase the chance of making type II error. That is we retain the null hypothesis when in fact the hypothesis was wrong. In other words, the treatment actually works. If we are very conservative we set alpha at a very low level, we may have a very strong chance of making type II error. So manipulation of alpha can reduce type I but at the same time will increase Type II EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

31. In many parts of the world the arrival of rats on islands can be disastrous for ground nesting birds. The YYY islands in the ++++ support the largest population of the ship rat Rattusrattus remaining in the United Kingdom. The islands also support 60,000+ pairs of breeding puffin Frateculaarctica. It has been suggested that the rats are responsible for a decline in the puffin on the Shiants. EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

32. Suppose we decide to test this theory by experimentation. We begin by setting up two hypotheses: Ho : the rats have no significant effect on puffin numbers H1 : the rats have a significant effect on puffin numbers. Depending on the outcome of our experiment a rat eradication program will be started. What are the consequences as a result of type I or Type II errors in this situation? EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

33. If Ho is true the rats have no significant effect on the puffin, but somehow we reject the true null hypothesis, we commit type I error A Type I error means that we will begin a costly eradication of the United Kingdom's most significant population of this mammal even though it is doing no harm. If Ho is false, it means the rats are having an effect on the puffin but we fail to reject, we commit type II error. A Type II error means that we will do nothing to the rats and the puffin decline will continue. EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

34. We begin our analysis by assuming that the Ho is true. This is analogous to the presumption of innocence if you are committed for trial. If the Ho is true, what is the biggest difference between the sample means that can occur by chance at a reasonable level of probability? In other words, how different can we expect means to become simply as a result of chance? EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

35. If the observed difference is less than this chance amount we have insufficient evidence for an effect since the difference could have arisen by chance. In such circumstances we must conclude that there is no significant difference between the two mean values. Again this is analogous to finding someone innocence if there was insufficient evidence of guilt. EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

36. According to the rules of significance testing we must establish a strict criterion for rejection of the null hypothesis. If P is true is less than alpha we can reject Ho and accept Ha. If we reject Ho we are reasonably confident that a real difference exists, (there is evidence beyond 'reasonable doubt to presume guilt’). EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

37. So to reduce type II as well as to reduce type I, use a large sample size. The larger the sample size, the larger will be the probability of making a correct decision. EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

38. Type II error That is we retain the null hypothesis when in fact the hypothesis was wrong. In other words, the treatment actually works. If we are very conservative we set alpha at a very low level, we may have a very strong chance of making type II error. So manipulation of alpha can reduce type I but at the same time will increase Type II EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

39. Type I error Type I error occurs when we reject the null hypothesis when in fact, the null hypothesis should be retained. Example a researcher might have concluded that the treatment works where in fact in reality the observe difference might be due to sampling error. We do not want to make type I error often because we will be making incorrect decision. EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

40. Examples of hypothesis: A particular feed ration will increase the weight of steers The use of new foot ware will increase one’s running speed If one use a certain type of textbook (A) the chances to pass will be greater compared to other type of textbook (B) The correlation coefficient in the population is zero Mean in the population is zero The slope of the regression is zero The difference between the two means is zero EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

41. Characteristics of quality hypothesis: • Mempunyaikuasapenerangan • (explanatory power) • should be able to explain the intended relationship between variables • There is a relationship between number of votes obtained by a candidate of party A and the weather on the polling day. Is it explanatory? EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

42. There is relationship between number of votes obtained by a candidate of party A and voters satisfactions towards certain issues Nasitakmasaksebabtakadasayur Nasitakmasaksebab air takcukup Tempahankeretabarumerosotsebabkomisyenkepadajurujualkeretadihapuskan (inverse relationship) EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

43. 2. Must state the expected relationship • identify the variables (specifically and operationally) • state direction (negative/positive/no-direction) the car will not start and it has a wiring problem is there a proposed relationship? The car will not start because of fault in wiring system If children differ from each other in self-concept, they will differ from each other in social achievement study. Is there an expected relationship? It look like it has…. There is positive relationship between self-concept and social studies achievement. Is there an expected relationship? EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

44. 3. MUST BE TETABLE Kita perlubolehlihatsebab/kesan /hubunganakibatdaripadaapa yang dihipotesiskanmelaluicerapan/observation Tanah runtuh because an act of god…. Can we test? Tanah runtuhdisebabkanoleh ground movement/ banyakpenebanganpokok/hujanlebat …. Is it more meaningful/testable? There is a relationship between penglibatandalamrakanmuda and youth development… well it is hypothesis, but is it testable? To be testable, a variable can be measured. So have to operationally defined the variables Avoid using value statements A counseling program in elementary school is desirable Elementary school children ho have had counseling will probably express greater satisfaction with their schools than those …. You can measure satisfaction , but whether it is desirable or not is a value judgment EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

45. 4. CONSISTENT WITH THE EXIXTING BODY OF KNOWLEDGE Do not contradict the existing theory or knowledge Like: my car will not start because the fluid in the battery has changed into gold The car does not start because the fluid in the battery has evaporated Try to establish hypotheses that are in agreement with the existing knowledge especially if you are a novice a novice researcher Review the literature thoroughly so that the hypotheses will be formulated based on reported research in the area EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

46. 5. SIMPLE AND CONSISE It make the testing much easier Provide a clear and easily comprehend report Need to break general hypothesis into several smaller hypothesis have several specific hypotheses gunakan term yang mudahdifahami The socio economic status of the family plays a part in determining the degree of conformity experienced by adolescents in various social context, and the various components of these social status differ in the extent of their effects upon his attitudes to authority; Can it be broken into several hypothesis? EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

47. Specific: Attitudes towards authority…at home and SES Attitudes towards authority… at school and SES Attitudes towards authority.. with peers and SES Attitudes towards authority.. and father education EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

48. The objectives of the study was to determine the factors associated with secondary school teachers’ job satisfaction. Specifically, the study was conducted to acheiev these objectives: • determine the relationship between gender and job satisfaction • determine the relationship between academic qualification and job satisfaction • determine te amount of teaching load and job satisfaction. Etc. EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

49. 1. nyatakan hipotesis nul dan juga alternatif hipothesis H 0 = 0 H 1  0 Tiada perbezaan pencapaian antara pelajar lelaki dan pelajar perempuan dalam kursus matematiks (null) Penacapain pelajar lelaki dan perempuan dalam kursus matematik adalah berbeza ( alternatif/ hipotesis kajian) We want to disapprove the null hypothesis. We want to go for the alternatif hypothesis so that we can conduct some programs to enrich the learning of either group. Tetapi kita tidak mahu membuat keputusan tanpa bukti yang kukuh. EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR

50. 2.PIliH ARAS KEYAKINAN (significant level) Memilih tahap genting Kita mestilah tetapkan syarat untuk menolak null hipothesis. Kita nak mengatakan bahawa kita mempunyai penuh keyakinan bahawa null hipotesis adalah salah dan kita nak tolak null hipotehis ini. Kita beri kelonggaran sebanyak 5% sahaja bahawa null adalah benar dan 95% lagi mengatakan null adalah salah. JIKA NULL ADALAH BENAR KITA AKAN TERIMA DAN JIKA NULL ADALAH SALAH KITA AKAN TOLAK. Kita tidak mahu tolak null yang benar. Jika kita tolak null yang benar kita membuat satu kesilapan yang besar (costly mistake) . EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR