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Unit Four. The Role of Governments. 4.1 Trade Barriers. 4.1.1 Trade barriers: an international marketer ’ s minefield 1. Tariffs: to controls the in-flow of foreign goods across its borders
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Unit Four The Role of Governments
4.1 Trade Barriers • 4.1.1 Trade barriers: an international marketer’s minefield • 1. Tariffs: to controls the in-flow of foreign goods across its borders • 2. inspections: the government’s right and duty to protect its citizens’ health and welfare (food stuffs, medical equipment, farm animals,etc.)
3. import licensing进口许可证: government’s legitimate function; licensed by the importer’s government; a fee paid by the importer • Inspection: control the product quality • Licensing: control both involved sides of the transaction
4. Environmental control: Government are protecting the environment within their borders. Restrictions on packaging ( amount, size, recyclability), product content labeling (chemical proportions), and pollution controls can be placed on foreign exporters before licensing will be granted.
5. Technology transfers 技术转让: • Most developing markets insist on technology transfers if a product is to be sold within their national boundaries • a way to catch up with competitors without expensive research or investment. • That is why a target company insists that joint venture, product importation or manufacture under license with a foreign marketer must ultimately involve a transfer of technology (physical, process design, managerial, etc.)
6. customs delays:海关延迟 • product held without a stated cause for extended periods (software, music CDs, videos) • They are delayed by customs for various purposes to protect local markets
7. quotas:配额 • An import quota is a non-tariff barrier to restrict the quantity of imports, to protect local producers from foreign trading practice or be used as a punishment for political problems between rival powers. • The strictest form : embargo
8. Anti-dumping laws 反倾销法案: • to prevent foreigners from selling products at extremely low prices into a market to drive out competition; only countries with sophisticated commercial law can use this type of legislation
4.1.2 Trade intervention 贸易干涉 • 1. Arguments---intervention possibilities of agricultural policy • Food security has top priority on the political agenda • The developed worlds have an interest in getting more open access to the Chinese market for their products
4.1.3 Intervention by the government • 1. embargo • disastrous effect on exporters • marketers: be aware of the political environment and be prepared to calculate, as well as manage risk
2. national security issues • Goods: nuclear materials, strategic minerals, chemicals, computer chips, technical manuals, or military surplus; too strategic militarily and economically to be freely marketed to other nations, regardless of the profit potential. • Countries have restrictions to delineate them quite clearly • 3. export tariffs • Government tax exports primarily as a source of revenue and use as a means of promoting or punishing particular industries • Export tariffs can be used to control flow and businesses
4. export licensing 出口许可证 • Export licensing is a flow control just like export tariffs. • It is often used as a means of denying a rival economy access to both raw and finished products without instituting a full embargo
4.1.4 unofficial intervention • 1. public relations • Public relations play an important role in marketing. From poor translated brand names to the lack of locally hired management personnel, bad public relations can sidetrack the best of products
2. nationalism • Competitors, host government officials and political activists cry out that the marketing efforts are bad for the nation. • It is a very powerful force, it will threaten the product’s continued survival or strength, and what’s more, it is difficult to control
3. religion • Religion plays a greater factor in business every year, with much of it centering around Islamic beliefs regarding profit taking and interest rates. Because religion carries such an emotional impact, pure reasoning and factual presentation will do little to get the product back on track
4. ethnic problems • Ethnic conflicts that are centuries old still burn hot. Belief that the product is ethnically dangerous or inferior can stymie your marketing efforts whether the accusations are true or not. Overcoming ethnic stereotypes takes years of work and enormous amounts of money.
1991年,我们国家进口的“黑人牙膏”和国产“黑妹牙膏”正热卖。谁也没想到会有什么问题。有一天,非洲国家的使团长代表所有非洲国家驻华使节来找鲁大使,很严肃地拿出一管“黑人牙膏”给他看,说:“这是对我们黑人的歧视!”北京有140多个使馆,其中有40个是非洲国家的,这件事相关领导非常重视,专门把商标局、海关、工商局、进出口管理局等单位的相关负责人召集到一块儿,连生产“黑妹”牙膏的厂长都找了来。后来,外交部专门向使团长做了解释,全国各大商店也把“黑人牙膏”放在了不显眼的位置,事件才得以平息。 • 关于“DARLIE”、“DARKIE”等商标使用问题的通知 工商标字〔1994〕第106号 各省、自治区、直辖市及计划单列市工商行政管理局:1991年5月,经我局商标局核准,好维股份有限公司在牙膏等商品上注册了两件由“DARLIE”文字与绅士图形组合的商标,注册证号分别为552362、552364(“DARLIE”为自造字)。1992年5月,我局接到举报,经调查发现,在我国市场上有带“DARKIE”文字,和丑化了的黑人头像图形的牙膏出售,同时还发现,好维股份有限公司在牙膏商品上自行改变第552362、552364号注册商标的文字或图形,在上述全包装注册的商标上添加“DARKIE IS NOW DARLIE”文字,或将绅士头像图形改变为丑化的黑人头像图形等。“DARKIE”文字和丑化的黑人头像图形商标,明显地带有对黑人的种族歧视,违反了我国《商标法》的有关规定。1992年6月,根据我国《商标法》第八条、第三十四条的规定,我局与原商业部联合发布了《关于禁止销售带有种族歧视的“DARKIE”牙膏的通知》(工商标字〔1992〕第189号);根据我国《商标法》第三十条第一款的规定,我局商标局作出了《关于撤销第552362号和第552364号注册商标的决定》(商标〔1992〕第038号)。
好维股份有限公司对撤销其注册商标决定不服,以上述自行改变注册商标的牙膏并非是该公司在中国生产的,而是在马来西亚和印度尼西亚等地生产,并且在该公司不知道的情况下,由他人擅自进口到中国为由,向我局商标评审委员会申请复审。1994年1月4日,我局商标评审委员会作出《两件“DARLIE”商标撤销复审终局裁定》(商标评字〔1994〕第1号),对好维股份有限公司的第552362、第552364号商标注册权利予以维持。 鉴于上述情况,本着依法严格办案的原则,根据我国《商标法》的有关规定,现就“DARLIE”、“DARKIE”等商标使用问题通知如下: 一、第552362、第552364号“DARLIE”文字与绅士头像图形组合的注册商标继续有效,好维股份有限公司及其合法的商标被许可人依法使用该注册商标的商品,应当允许其生产和流通,并且该注册商标专用权依法受到保护。 二、“DARKIE”文字和丑化的黑人头像图形商标,严重违反了我国《商标法》的有关规定,带有上述种族歧视性商标的商品,应当依法坚决禁止生产和销售;继续生产、销售的,应依法严肃处理。 各级工商行政管理局所发有关此案的文件,与本通知精神不符的,一律按本通知执行。 一九九四年五月四日
5. society • Since some societies have a structure not to accept certain products, marketers must often approach a market several times before they are permitted to entry. Some industries are bound by edict not to promote foreign products • 6. education: training must be part of the marketing plan when educational levels are key to a product’s acceptance
1、中药出口注册难度大。桂林三金药业和天和药业都反映,产品在国外注册有很大困难。除少数几个东方国家以外,中药在国外整体上不被认可。若想打入国外市场,必须按照新药注册程序进行该国审批,这对于中药极其困难。即便在一些传统中药市场注册,或以健康食品(饮食补充剂)的身份进入国外市场,也存在注册时间长、费用高、风险大的问题。此外,各国注册要求并不相同,企业不能全面了解国外注册法规及要求。 2、深受中药重金属、农残问题的困扰。与发达国家相比,我国中药重金属、农残问题的研究和标准制定落后于国际水平,对中药材种植方面重金属、农残的控制较晚,这使得企业无法从根本上监控中药的重金属、农残。而欧美等发达国家制定的标准部分偏高,成为中药出口的贸易壁垒。很多企业尚未掌握国外植物药重金属、农残标准数据。在中药出口检测时,产品因重金属、农残超标而受阻。 3、涉及濒危物种中药出口难。我国的中药中常含有《濒危野生动植物种国际贸易公约》目录中的中药材,出口含这些中药材的中药时,需向国家濒危物种管理办公室申请办理《允许进出口证明书》。而目前企业普遍反映办理濒危证花费时间长,手续烦琐,且含有不合理之处,造成中药出口在国内也受到一定阻障。 4、信息渠道不畅通。国外医药法规、市场动态对企业产品出口决策有很强的指导作用。目前,企业因不能及时、有效地获取国外相关法规、所需信息,无法跟踪国际市场的变化,阻碍了中药出口发展。
意见和建议 • 1、为解决出口注册难题,商会开展了药品出口注册工作,专门为企业提供咨询、指导、代理联系工作。建议成立药品出口注册指导中心,汇总各国中药出口注册规定,整理成指南。并根据企业需要,提供具体产品的专门指导、代理联系业务,帮助企业突破注册难关。 2、搜集、汇总世界卫生组织及各国对植物药重金属、农残标准提供给企业作参考,调研国外标准对我中药出口的影响,进行对策分析研究。与国内有关部门机构共同促进中药材GAP认证的实施,促进建立健全中药重金属、农残的检测评价机制。与国外政府及有关行业组织就中药重金属、农残标准问题保持经常性的交流与沟通。 3、积极与农业部、国家濒危物种管理办公室沟通,将企业的具体问题反映到主管部门,争取有关部门对中药进出口工作的重视,在不违背原则的前提下,给予一定的支持。 4、在信息化建设方面,强化服务意识。逐步收集、整理、完善国际国内医药产业、市场、政策法规等多方面信息,搭建医药出口信息共享平台,及时更新信息,与企业进行信息互动交流,及时了解企业情况。 5、加强分会建设,提高分会凝聚力。利用分会平台,及时了解企业发展情况,为企业解决问题,做好企业与政府间的协调工作。同时,为企业提供交流互动空间。 6、推进标准化建设。大力推行《绿色植物及制剂外经贸绿色行业标准》在国际上的认可。联系企业及其他相关部门,牵头制定中成药、植物提取物方面的外经贸行业标准,促进中医药国际标准的制定工作。 7、开展信用体系建设。鼓励企业推行出口品牌战略,评选优秀中药出口企业及出口品牌,对外公布优秀名单,向国外行业协会及客户推介,加大宣传力度。
中药是由中医大夫按中医理论使用的药,西方国家没有多少像样的中医大夫,且不承认中医药,中药只能作为饮食补充剂、保健食品上市,明显影响中药疗效,自然中药出口不可能太多。所以要想提高中药的国际市场份额,就必须为他国培养大批中医人才,促使其承认中医药,应用中医药,如我国周边国家那样。中药是由中医大夫按中医理论使用的药,西方国家没有多少像样的中医大夫,且不承认中医药,中药只能作为饮食补充剂、保健食品上市,明显影响中药疗效,自然中药出口不可能太多。所以要想提高中药的国际市场份额,就必须为他国培养大批中医人才,促使其承认中医药,应用中医药,如我国周边国家那样。
7. environment • If the product has any potential ill effect on the environment, marketers can expect major market resistance, even without restrictive legislation, once such effects are brought to light. Environmental action groups enlist anyone they can in their effort and are unabashed when it comes to emotionalizing an issue.
8. science • Product lines that are radically innovative may have a difficult time overcoming the skepticism of the target market. When entering foreign markets, medicines, business software, securities and so on will suffer intense scrutiny. It’s best to assemble the proof beforehand and tailor its delivery to the target market.
Requirements that certain goods be imported into Japan via ports a long distance from their final destinations • Prohibitions on containers of imported goods over a certain size traveling on Japanese roads • Lengthy customs procedures • Insistence that imported products undergo several safety checks, each one having to be conducted by an official from a different government department • Application of separate customs, importation and other documentation procedures to imports of the same product of the same company but which enter Japan via different subsidiaries of the supplying company
4.2.4 the trade risks • Marketing abroad can be a very risky pursuit as the legal landscape in some countries is extremely fluid. Laws are sometimes unmodified and even when they are, interpretation can arbitrary.
1. taxation: • Governments view business as a source of tax revenue. • Some authorities lure foreign business with initially low tax rates, with the full intention that once the company has been committed and is operating successfully, tax rates will soar almost to the point of being confiscator. • There are no universal international laws governing the levy of taxes on companies that do business across national boundaries. • The taxation polices of the home and host nations can have negative and positive effects on a company
2.expropriation:definition • Expropriation refers to governmental action to dispossess a company or investor of property for which compensation is provided. • reasons: extreme political stress, inordinate levels of greed
3.sponsored competition: • Sponsored competition puts a favored local company or person under a government protection. These sponsorship are further aided by technology transfers that were mandated by the government as part of allowing the foreign company to operate within its borders. • 4.bribery • ignore bribery and act as if it does not exist • recognize the existence of bribery and evaluate its effect on the purchase decision as if it were just another element of the market mix
腐败是个特别容易引起争论的话题。有人认为腐败之所以存在是因为没有民主,如果给人民彻底的监督权,就不会有腐败。另有人则认为在中国这样的特定环境中,让高层震慑贪官才是最有效的办法。这种争论其实往往都是空对空,很多人只不过出于自身的意识形态来决定站在哪一边,谁也说服不了谁。可是你还能怎样呢?腐败是个特别容易引起争论的话题。有人认为腐败之所以存在是因为没有民主,如果给人民彻底的监督权,就不会有腐败。另有人则认为在中国这样的特定环境中,让高层震慑贪官才是最有效的办法。这种争论其实往往都是空对空,很多人只不过出于自身的意识形态来决定站在哪一边,谁也说服不了谁。可是你还能怎样呢? • 现在的经济学家认为 talk is cheap. 为了平息以上争论,世界银行出了(至少)540万美元,给一个叫 Ben Olken 的年轻人去就这个问题去写篇博士论文。他的做法是到印尼找 600 个村庄做实验:给每个村庄 9000 美元让他们给自己村子修路,等路修完后再派专家评估每条路实际花了多少钱,以此判断有多少钱被村里的基层官员贪污了。这个实验的设计是这样的,把 600 个村庄随机地(关键词:随机)分为三组:对第一组,告诉村官说路修好后上面要来检查;对第二组,把权力交给村民,通过村民大会来监督工程质量;第三组是控制组,没有任何防腐措施。哪种反腐方法好使?
结果控制组贪污了30%的工程款,被警告会有检查的组只贪污了不到20%,而“民权组”贪污的几乎和控制组一样多。看来对印尼基层官员来说,上层的力量比村民民主要有效的多。结果控制组贪污了30%的工程款,被警告会有检查的组只贪污了不到20%,而“民权组”贪污的几乎和控制组一样多。看来对印尼基层官员来说,上层的力量比村民民主要有效的多。
一)严格的进出口管理 1、进口管理 美国拥有一整套严格的保护其国内生产商利益的进口管理体制,其管理措施主要有: (1) 关税保护: • 美国自1989年起实行国际上统一的税目,其中约 17%为免税税目,其余多数征从价税,少数征从量税或混合税。从量税主要适用于农产品,混合税适用于工业品。 美国的关税税率分为三种: A. 普通税率。即最惠国税率,多数国家享受此税率; B. 特别税。适用于享受美国普惠制优惠的一些发展中国家和地区以及与美签有自由贸易协定或安排的国家; C. 第三种税适用于与美国没有最惠国待遇安排的国家和地区,包括阿富汗、古巴、蒙古、柬埔寨、越南、老挝和塞尔维亚。 例如出口到美国的玩具娃娃,最惠国待遇关税为12%,非最惠国待遇关税则高达70%,而来自享受普惠制国家以及美国以色列自由贸易区和其它双协定安排国家的同类产品可享受免税待遇。
(2) 关税配额: 为控制进口数量,保护国内生产商利益,对部分农产品实行关税配额。在一定数量内,进口享受免税或低关税、而对超出配额数量的进口商品适用高关税。 适用产品主要有:不含糖、不含甜味剂的1%-6%脂肪牛奶及奶油;密封容器盛装的油、金枪鱼;包括高梁在内的金雀花类植物;部分橄榄。农业部长每年对关税配额水平进行调整并公布于众。 (3) 绝对配额: 美对一些较敏感行业的产品实行绝对配额管理,即每年均规定了允许进口的数量,不得超量。主要适用于一些农产品和来自一些国家的纺织品。
(4) 自动限量协议: 美国利用其实力地位,与其贸易伙伴谈判要贸易伙伴自动限制其某商品对美的出口,并与美签署协议,从而达到限制进口,保护国内生产商利益的目的。 • (5) 进口许可证及准许证: 美国对以下产品实行进口许可证及准许证制度:奶酪、牛奶、黄油、奶油、活畜、家禽、鸡蛋、哺乳动物及其制品、生物制品、武器、弹药、天然气 、鱼、野生动物、植物及植物制品、放射性物质及核设备等。 (6) 有秩序销售协议: 美1974年贸易法第406款规定,如果美国国际贸易委员会认定, 来自某非市场经济国家产品的大量进口对美市场造成扰乱,总统就有权采取补救措施,即以贸易报复相威胁,迫使出口国与美签订所谓有“秩序销售协议”,控制出口数量。
(7)反倾销: 迄今为止,美国共对我发起了60多起反倾销调查,除少数胜诉外,多数产品均被征高额反倾销税,不得不退出美国市场。 (8) 反补贴: 美国利用对进口产品发起反补贴调查并征收反补贴税的方法来避免不公平竞争对其国内造成损害。 反补贴在一次案件审理中被判为不适用于非市场经济国家,因此也不适用于我国,原因是在非市场经济国家难以测算出是否补贴和补贴的幅度。 (9) 技术性强制管理措施: 美国对进口产品在安全、卫生方面有严格的进口检验及认证制度,所有进口产品都必须满足其规定的标准。 (10)行政命令: 有时,美国总统根据其贸易法的授权,有权发布行政命令,对来自某国的某种产品实施禁令。1994年,美国曾以行政命令方式禁止进口中国的民用枪支弹药。
2、出口管理 美国政府对出口实行两种管理,一是对出口采取鼓励和支持措施,二是从安全利益出发,对高技术产品实施严格的出口管制。 支持出口的措施有:为出口商提供政府优惠信贷;为美出口商在海外进行项目可行性研究提供资助等等。在出口管制项下,美出口商必须事先就某项技术或产品的出口提出申请,经商务部、国务院和国防部审查批准,方能出口。