Extra tutorial on 'proxies'

1. Extra tutorial on 'proxies' Part of Dick Hudson's web tutorial on Word Grammar

2. The problem • How to analyse examples like this: Since when have you lived here? • Most of the structure is clear. • It's also clear why when is at the front: • it's a 'wh-word' (interrogative/relative pronoun) • But what about since? +a c s p s

3. since when • since is just an ordinary preposition • so it doesn't normally start an interrogative • e.g. *Since 2008 have you lived here? • But before when, it can start an interrogative. • when is an interrogative pronoun • so it does start interrogatives • e.g. When did you leave? • BUT after in, it depends on in, so it should take its position from in, not vice versa.

4. Moreover, … • It's when, not since, that relates to words outside the interrogative clause • I wonder since when you've been living here. • I wonder when you came. • but not: *I wonder since 2008 you've …. • I.e. wonder needs a word like when. • So: when (not since) links to wonder • And: when takes its position from wonder. • But: whenalso takes its position from since.

5. Similarly, … • the book in which I found the answer • which is the relative pronoun that links to book and found • But: which depends on in, and follows it • So: which takes its position from bookandin. • I wonder how big it is. • how is the interrogative word that links to wonder and is • But: how depends on big, and precedes it • So: how takes its position from wonderandbig.

6. Pied-piping • In the technical literature on syntax, this pattern is called 'Pied-piping' • the Pied-piper of Hamelin lured the rats to follow him into the river • similarly, wh-words 'lure' their parent words to follow them to the front of the clause. • Basic insight: • since/in/big only starts the clause because of its dependent when/which/how.

7. A WG solution: 'proxy' • If you vote on my behalf, then you're my 'proxy' • X's proxy = person authorized to act instead of X. • Wh-words can identify their parent word as their 'proxy'. • abbreviation: 'y' • e.g. since is the proxy of when. y

8. Proxy rules • We allow 'pied-piping' by referring to 'proxy of wh-word' as well as 'wh-word' • better, to avoid repeating 'wh-word or proxy': • only allow 'proxy of wh-word' • but also say that any wh-word is its own proxy. • E.g. the proxy of an interrogative pronoun: • takes a finite verb as complement • may be extracted from that verb • may be the object of a verb like WONDER

9. Some analyses • Since when have you lived here? c +a c s p s y x x,+a

10. Another • The book in which I found it is here. s c s o p c +a c y x,+a

11. And another • I wonder how big it is. c o a+ s s y x,p